The Science of Pseudoscience

Introduction

For all the baseball fans out there, here's a fun fact for you. Ted Williams, nineteen-time all-star and two-time recipient of the AL Most Valuable Player, has never actually won a World Series in his nearly two-decade-long career. He was also cryonically frozen in Arizona almost twenty years ago. 

Ted Williams, May 1949

If you're willing to pay upwards of 60,000 dollars, you too can be stored at temperatures below -196 C  for a chance of reanimation in the distant future. Unfortunately, it's looking like the very, very distant future. The science of cryonics is entirely dependent on the existence of advanced human or alien societies that have developed the unknown technology required to stabilize and resurrect dying cells. Using the biology knowledge we have from this class, you can probably figure out that this would be pretty hard to do. Not to mention, if I was a futuristic alien society, I wouldn't really want to resurrect someone stuck in a tube for that long.

Additionally, the website used by the Cryonics Institute is sketchy at best. Not very convincing for an actual scientific process. All of these factors, in addition to quite a few more I was able to find in my brief research, have led to cryonic freezing being categorized as a 'pseudoscience' by the scientific community.

What is pseudoscience? Well, according to Merriam-Webster, it is "a system of theories, assumptions, and methods erroneously regarded as scientific." Take astrology, for a lighter example. In some ways, it could be seen as scientific. Whenever someone brings up the equinox or eclipses or planets in retrograde, they sound pretty smart. The fancy terms work, too. Almost 34% of Americans consider astrology to be 'very' or 'somewhat' scientific. But why?

Astrology divination chart (looks scientific!)

Cognitive Bias

The human mind is very prone to cognitive bias, which pseudoscience takes advantage of. Our brains enjoy patterns, so when we already have a theory or unconscious belief formed in our heads, we are inclined to seek out evidence that supports what we think is true. Unfortunately, these biases impact much more than just our horoscopes. Everything from the recollection of memories to relationships with other people is crowded with internalized cognitive biases. Because of its power and persuasion, it is super important to understand the why, what, and how to mitigate biases successfully. 

Obviously, cognitive bias originates from the brain, where over 100 billion nerve cells (with up to 10,000 connections each) work together to control our thoughts and behaviors. Discrete brain circuits and neurotransmitter systems are regulated by dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin, acetylcholine, glutamate, and GABA, all of which drive certain behaviors within specific parts of the brain. However, only some of these processes actually enter our conscious awareness.

It has proven incredibly challenging for scientists to distinctly determine cognitive processes, due to their convolution and synergistic operation. But, some domains of cognitive function have been identified and documented through modern testing batteries, such as CANTAB, which can separate functions dependent upon diverse neuronal circuitry. 

Domain specificity of cognition with examples (Image: Cambridge Cognition)

While cognition can be split into processes quite nicely, actually mapping them onto the cortex has been much more difficult. Some specific regions have been mapped to be heavily involved in specific functions but figuring out exactly where does what is exceptionally challenging. What helps, however, is thinking of the brain in terms of regions that hold general concepts of cognition. Every region has its own role to play, adding to the coherent whole.

Regions of the Brain 

Consequently, to go along with the varying sections and functioning of the brain, there are multiple types of biases that can impact specific judgments and decision-making in different areas. 

Cognition is constantly changing and adapting to new information, assisting us in literally every thought we ever thought and emotion we ever felt. However, this exceptionally complex system clearly isn't perfect. That's where pseudoscience can come in and take advantage of the natural biological processes of the brain.  

Conclusion

There is no single cause for cognitive bias, just as there is no single solution to solving it. However, it is important to make an effort towards identifying the biases you experience and act upon in daily life. 

But hey, don't get too down on yourself for all your irrational behaviors and the mental shortcuts you make on a daily basis. It's only natural. In fact, cognitive bias has been recognized in all sorts of animals: rats, pigs, chicks, rhesus macaques, and even honeybees! 

A rhesus macaque!! (Awww)

In its own unique way, pseudoscience illustrates the basis of not only AP Biology but every science class I can remember taking since the 5th grade. Not cellular structure or photosynthesis, but the scientific process in and of itself. In order to make a claim, you must have evidence and reasoning that creates a sound explanation of an observation (See Mrs. Eckert's article on that here).  Pseudoscience acts as a counterexample to this process. When evidence or reasoning is eliminated, there is always lingering invalidity in the explanation that can be easily ignored in an attempt to validate previously held beliefs. 

Pseudoscience has, and always will be present. Debunking it doesn't stop people from believing it, and we all know how hard it can be to get someone to change their minds once it's set on what they think is right. With this in mind, when you find yourself on page seven of Google trying to find support for your argument, keep in mind the principles of cognitive bias and how much of an impact it has on our minds.