Barre Exercise Craze

I recently started my senior internship at The BarMethod. Even though its my first experience with a barre workout, I quickly realized why everyone loves it. It's safe, no impact and works muscles you didn't even know you had. Probably like most others, I was skeptical at first. I love high intensity workouts like spin classes, so how could something so low impact be a good workout? I was instantly proven wrong when I entered the studio. My legs were shaking like crazy and afterwards I was SO sore. I felt strong, flexible, and all around better. The BarMethod was designed alongside physical therapists, so I felt comforted knowing I was safe while also building and toning muscle. With the many success stories from these workouts I wanted to know the secret behind the success. Just how does the BarMethod work and increase your fitness????

What is going on in your muscles??

Better flexibility: Throughout a barre class reps of isolated exercises are followed by stretches that target the same muscle group. When muscles are stretched some fibers remain the same length while others extend. The length or flexibility of a muscle depends on the number of lengthened or extended muscle fibers present. Over the stretch more fibers begin to extend, causing an increase in flexibility in the short term. Cells called proprioreceptors are in charge of perceiving a muscle's ability to lengthen and operate on feedback loops. When they detect changes in movement they send signals to the nervous system allowing the body to use this motion. They are located in muscle fibers, which makes sense, since muscle fibers are the fibers doing the lengthening of your muscles.

For the long term effect, it's your brain doing the work. In fact, some research suggests that your brain is actually tricked into thinking you are more flexible (whaaat?). When you stretch, those previously mentioned muscle fibers are sending signals to the central nervous system. As you hold the stretch for longer, they begin to lessen how much they are firing, or how often they send the signals, making you feel less pain (what we call being flexible). Then, your brain interprets these signals and recognizes the pain as non-harmful. The next time you do the same movement, your brain recognizes the pain before you feel it as safe, and you can stretch further!

Difference in stretched and contracted muscles, showing how some fibers are elongated while others are not 

Focus on Form: By focusing on alignment, barre classes make sure your joints are protected during every move. It's easy to fall out of form when doing challenging exercises but by keeping your body properly aligned, you burn more calories, protect your joints and get stronger.

How foot alignment protects your hips, knees and spine!! Your future self will thank you!

More reps = more burned calories: If you have ever taken a barre class, you know that each move is held for multiple minutes with lots of small reps, and you know it burns. If you haven't taken a bar class and are thinking "that sounds so easy", think again and maybe sign up for one. Barre classes are onto something here. With little to no impact, small movements can be done by almost anyone, while burning tons of calories. Each muscle is worked past the burn, using up lots of ATP. Eventually these cells switch to the glycogen-lactic acid system to generate ATP, and if continued to work, burn fat. It's a win-win for everyone involved (you, your joints and your muscles). This is an example of aerobic exercise, as it's low intensity, but controlled, leading to more toned muscles and overall fitness.

Why do muscles shake when worked? Like mentioned before, when you work your muscles, different fibers contract and relax. When you're working hard, some of the fibers contract at different rates, leading to an irregular pattern of contraction within the muscle. The irregularity is the shaking, and a sign you're doing the exercise right ;).

It's pretty clear why the BarMethod has gained popularity and is here to stay. See you at the Bar!

Check it out here!

Salps, the Carbon Cycle, and Climate Change

As a curious person interested in biology, I follow a series of blogs run by various expeditions and research groups run through the Alfred Wegner Institute. Their work in polar and arctic research is really exciting and important in this time of climate change, and knowledge of Antarctica and its surrounding waters is something humans have been trying to gather for decades. I've always been fascinated by the stories of the Shackleton expeditions and others like it, where people spent long periods of time traveling across Antarctica to reach the South Pole, or were stranded while exploring the oceans around Antarctica, like the Weddell Sea, in the 1900s. The blogs run by the members of the current research expeditions give me a small glimpse of the awe-inspiring climates and geographical features of Antarctica, while being able to learn about the current research that is being done there.

* * * * *

This Spring, fifty international researchers spent close to eight weeks on a research vessel near Antarctica. Off the coast of Chile's southernmost point, they conducted research on a variety of organisms like krill, fish, and whales. Their focus, however, was directed on salps. Salps are gelatinous marine organisms, related to tunicates and, while not well known or researched, play a potentially huge role in the marine ecosystem, as well as the carbon cycle. Their involvement in the carbon cycle also indicates that salps may also be affecting climate change.

Germany's largest research vessel, the Polarstern, used mainly for arctic and antarctic research expeditions. 

The AWI (Alfred Wegner Institut, named after the German polar researcher, meteorologist, and geophysicist) is a marine and arctic research institute, and this expedition was one like many others they have done in the past. The AWI has a number of permanent and seasonal research stations in Antarctica, as well as a field station in the Siberian permafrost.

The fifty-man crew of researchers, PhD students, engineers, mechanics, pilots, camera people, and technicians came from all over the world, from a dozen different institutions and organizations, from Europe to Canada to South Africa to Australia, and one scientist from the US. While a few of those on board were filming fin whale aggregations for a BBC documentary, others focused on oceanography, or research on Antarctica's food web.

One of the most interesting, timely, and marine ecology focused research foci on board was that of the salps. Salps are related to tunicates, and are gelatinous sea creatures that live (among other places), in antarctic waters. They reproduce incredibly quickly, in long chains, and in some places become a nuisance by coating beaches in their slimy bodies. They feed on phytoplankton, creating massive booms in population in response to large phytoplankton populations. They move by contracting their bodies, forcing water through themselves, and are among the most efficient animals to do so. They vary greatly in size based on their stage in their lifecycle, from 1 to 10 cm, and are found both in long chains (when budding off and shortly thereafter as offspring grow in size) and alone.

Salps in the red sea. Salps reproduce asexually and sexually, forming long chains before budding off.

Salps are very efficient and grow quickly, but they also play a vital role in the carbon cycle in the oceans, since they produce very carbon-rich feces, which sink to the bottom of the ocean and the carbon enclosed in the fecal pellets doesn't enter the atmosphere again for a very long time.

A diagram of how carbon moves through the ocean and the atmosphere

The researchers aboard the Polarstern hoped to collect more detailed data on the lifecycle of salps, their eating habits, the carbon in their fecal matter, and how they interact with competing organisms like krill.

This is a graphic from the expedition outline handbook, which shows a number of different aspects of krill and salp interaction and behavior that researchers hoped to conduct research on.

As the expedition ended on May 6, we can now eagerly await the peer-reviewed articles with the results of the research done aboard the Polarstern. 

The Effect of Space on the Human Body

Have you ever wondered what it's like to be in space without any gravity?  What does this do to your body?  Will you change permanently?  What effect does this foreign environment specifically have on your DNA?  These are questions that will hopefully be answered after you read this post.

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/next/physics/scientists-generate-quantum-entanglement-in-space-for-the-first-time/

Life in space is pretty strange.  First of all, there is no up, down, right, left, so it is incredibly difficult to orient yourself.  Second, without gravity, you are essentially weightless.  While this is cool at first, your body is forced to adjust to this tremendous problem.  Everything that operates normally on Earth is now in a completely foreign environment.  Because of this, various physical effects can occur.

The first effect is that in space, there is no gravity to oppose the flow of blood back to your heart (venous return) and this causes a build-up of fluid in the upper body and head.  This can cause blocked sinuses, which is known as the space sniffles.  Another effect is that in space without exercise, you could lose about 12% of your bone density per year.  Additionally, you can get taller in space since there is no gravity pushing you down and the fluid filled discs between each vertebra are no longer compressed.  This stretches the spine by about 3%.  However, as soon as you return to Earth, the spine eventually compresses back to normal length.  Furthermore, muscle atrophy can occur in space because there is almost no need for muscles.

Scott and Mark Kelly, both NASA astronauts, are identical twins that allowed NASA to examine the effects of space on the genome like never before.  Since both brothers have an identical set of DNA, one brother (Scott) was sent into space for a year while the other brother (Mark) was left on Earth as a control.  After 1 year, their genetic codes would be examined to see if any significant results arose.

Which is which?

https://www.nasa.gov/feature/how-stressful-will-a-trip-to-mars-be-on-the-human-body-we-now-have-a-peek-into-what-the-nasa

NASA found that Scott Kelly's telomere length actually increased.  Telomeres are caps at the end of chromosomes that get shorter as humans age, and are thus, connected with anti-aging.  The fact that Kelly's telomeres increased was contrary to what was expected as scientists speculated that the stress of living in space would cause them to decrease.  However, once Scott returned to Earth, his telomeres quickly returned to their normal levels.  Additionally, NASA found that approximately 7% of Scott's genes experienced long term changes.  These genes correlate with the immune system, bone formation, DNA repair, hypoxia (deficiency in oxygen reaching tissues), and hypercapnia (excess carbon dioxide in the bloodstream).  Finally, space caused an increased rate of methylation (the process of turning genes on and off).  The harsh environment of space led to these differences in Scott Kelly's genes as environment affects DNA.

The full studies of the Kelly experiment have not yet been fully released, but when they come out later this year, it should give scientists a much better perspective on not just the physical effects of space, but the genetic ones, too.

I've got 99 Problems and a Functioning Pancreas is One

1.25 million Americans, including my little sister, best friend, aunt, and grandpa, currently live with Type One Diabetes- T1D as it is colloquially known. By 2050, that number is predicted to grow to 5 million- a 300% increase in just 30 years. I've witnessed up close and personal the fear and anxiety caused by this currently incurable disease, and the mortal danger it presents every single day.  For this reason, I have special incentive to learn more about the strides we are making to end it. Type One diabetes is an auto-immune disease that results from a failure to produce insulin- a hormone which allows our cells to take up glucose from the bloodstream. The reason your blood sugar doesn't spike up to 500 after chugging a can of soda (the healthy range being 80-120) is that as your blood sugar levels increase your pancreas secretes insulin, allowing cells to take in glucose. Once your blood sugar levels lower, the level of secretion of insulin decreases. It's a negative feedback loop! Unfortunately, in diabetics, the pancreatic beta cells that are responsible for insulin production are destroyed by their immune system, resulting in an inability to control the glucose levels of their blood. The subsequent hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia can have dangerous side-effects including nausea, dizziness, lethargy, loss of consciousness, and death. There are also long-term damages to bodily organs and systems that result from extended periods of unstable blood sugar levels.  This includes heart and blood vessel disease, neuropathy, kidney damage, higher risk of miscarriage and stillbirth, and blindness. Fortunately, we have developed technology to control our glucose levels to try and prevent such things from occurring. Groundbreaking research has been working towards the development of new methods for diabetes management, with the goal of turning type one into type none.
A new system called the "artificial pancreas" has been revolutionizing diabetes management ever since it hit the market last spring. Once a far-off dream, the "AP" is an enormous breakthrough! The artificial pancreas is an integrated system that monitors blood glucose levels automatically and provides the proper dose of insulin to correct it. It combines two of the most recent technologies available for diabetics, the continuous glucose monitor (a wearable device which provides constant and mostly accurate readings of your blood glucose levels) and the insulin pump (a wearable, programmable device which calculates and delivers insulin dosages into the bloodstream).

Continuous Glucose Monitor - Diabetes.co.

Insulin Pump- - www.medtronicdiabetes.com

Artifical Pancreas-www.medtronicdiabetes.com

The artificial pancreas automates blood-glucose management, dramatically reducing T1D-related risks and improving lives of people who have the disease. The AP monitors glucose levels around the clock and automatically provides the right amount of insulin at the right time. As this technology advances, we will have the ability to virtually eliminate episodes of hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia. This closed-loop system replaces reliance on testing blood sugar by finger-prick or CGM and separate methods of delivering of insulin such as shots or a pump. The artificial pancreas has also made blood sugar management more precise and accurate. NIH research has found that early, tight control of blood glucose helps reduce diabetes complications including nerve, eye, and kidney diseases. For this reason, the artificial pancreas has the ability to vastly improve the lives of those burdened by T1D. Andrew Bremer, M.D., Ph.D., a program official from the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) who is overseeing studies regarding AP systems affirms that "Managing type 1 diabetes currently requires a constant juggling act between checking blood glucose levels frequently and delivering just the right amount of insulin while taking into account meals, physical activity, and other aspects of daily life, where a missed or wrong delivery could lead to potential complications." The unification of T1D management into a single, integrated system could lift so much of that burden." It is a major stepping stone on the path to a cure.

My friend was recently lucky enough to receive one of these systems. He cannot emphasize enough how much his artificial pancreas has facilitated his diabetes management. He and his parents sleep much better at night knowing that if he were to suddenly go low at 3am, his AP would automatically correct it.  "Type one diabetes is a constant battle," he tells me. "With my artificial pancreas, I feel as though I've got a trusty sidekick in the fight against my persistent and deadly enemy."

My friend wearing his artificial pancreas

Type one diabetes is a scary and unforgiving disease. Maintaining blood sugar levels is an art more than it is a science. You can account for every variable and still end up dangerously high or low. You cannot take breaks from it- not for a single second of the day. Every day, however, we are coming closer and closer to the future I and so many of my loved ones dream about. I'm proud to say that some of the leading research into AP systems is being done by the University of Virginia- where I'll attend next fall. In the past 20 years, we've made amazing strides in diabetes management technology, and so many lives have been changed for the better because of it. For the first time in history, a cure is within sight.

Let's Talk About X, Baby!

Have you ever heard the phrase "less is more?"  That quote applies to genetics, too!  Every female is born with two copies of the X chromosome, while males are born with one copy of the X chromosome and one copy of the Y chromosome. While this difference accounts for the designation of an individual's assigned sex, it also creates a large genetic problem called aneuploidy.  A female individual now has two copies of the same chromosome, which means she has too many genes.  Extra chromosomes can cause birth defects, like Down Syndrome which occurs after an extra copy of the 21st chromosome is made.

Karyotype Displaying Extra 21st Chromosome

So, how does one deal with this issue? The answer is X-inactivation, in which one copy of the X chromosome is condensed into a Barr body that becomes inactive because genes are not transcribed from it.  This occurs in autosomal cells during early embryonic development. This process is known as lyonization, named after Mary Lyon, the British scientist who discovered it.

Picture of Mary Lyon

To me, the most interesting part of this process is that it's completely random! It's impossible to know which chromosome will be deactivated, and in all female individuals, the same chromosome isn't deactivated everywhere.  The only exception to this is in kangaroos where the paternal X chromosome is activated over the maternal X chromosome.

A Kangaroo

This random activation and inactivation of X chromosomes means that all over a female individual's body, different genes are being expressed. This is called mosaicism, where two or more cell populations that have different genotypes are expressed in a single individual.  The best example of mosaicism caused by X-inactivation is found in a calico cat.  All calico cats are female because of X-inactivation.  For a male cat to be calico, they would have to have an "X"tra somatic cell.

A Calico Cat Displaying Mosaicism

This cat had parents that were likely orange and black.  On one X chromosome, there was a gene coding for black fur and on the other chromes there was a gene coding for orange fur.  Since X inactivation is random, the cat has multiple patches of black and orange fur across her body.  And if you were wondering, yes, female women are also mosaics!  Although mosaicism doesn't come through as obviously in female humans, it shows up in more subtle ways like a lack of sweat glands in certain parts of a woman's body.

In conclusion, ladies don't let anyone tell you otherwise; you are literally a mosaic and a work of art.

Breakfast For The Champions?

Arguably, everyone, from the time when we were able to make our own decisions and feed ourselves, has been repeatedly told by their mothers that “Breakfast is the most important meal

of the day!”. But is this true? Sometimes we don’t have enough time, we’re too tired to bother,

we want a little extra shut-eye or we just don’t have anything to eat! Does that mean that our

days will be less productive? That our day will be worse? That we will die? Okay, so you won’t

die, but it is true that breakfast is vitally important to your well-being day-to-day!

A Classic English Breakfast

Eating breakfast, as so plainly described in the name, means that you are breaking the
overnight fasting period from being asleep. When you sleep, your body’s energy source,
glucose, that has been stored in the muscle tissue is slowly released into the bloodstream
to keep blood sugar levels stable. Once all of this stored energy is used up, your body’s backup
is to break down fatty acids to produce energy, which when used up reduces energy levels
in the body. This is all to say that your body needs to be replenished with glucose, or glycogen,
in order to restore its energy for the day, and this can only be accomplished by consuming food.
Breakfast ladies and gentleman! It’s how you have to start your day!

To be a bit more expansive, all parts of our body need the energy to work!
This energy comes from food! When our bodies digest food, it is broken down in the stomach
by acid and enzymes into a type of sugar called glucose. Your stomach and small intestines
absorb this glucose and released into the bloodstream to be used immediately for energy.
Simply, consumption of food = energy = a functioning body = staying alive.

Furthermore, it’s extremely important to keep your blood sugar high! This is accomplished
by breaking down carbohydrates in foods into sugars, to be released into your blood.
When it’s low you may experience sweating, fatigue, lightheadedness, shakiness, nausea,
dryness, anxiety, headache, blurred vision, sleepiness, unsteadiness… and I could go on
and on. Now does that sound like how you want to start your day?

In case you don’t believe my word, here’s some evidence! Extensive research in Australia
and overseas has discovered that many children who skip breakfast are heavier than those
who eat breakfast, that skipping breakfast can diminish mental performance and their ability
to pay attention, that they have reduced fatigue and that skipping breakfast is associated with
quickly advancing age.

So eat your breakfast cereals, fruits, toast, muffins, yogurts and drink some low-fat milk,
whatever you’re into, and start your day right! It’s backed by science, it’s backed by your
mother, what more insurance of truth can you ask for?

E. Coli: The Good, Bad, and Deadly

Escherichia coli (usually abbreviated to E. coli) are bacteria that can be found in the environment, in foods, and the intestines of people and animals. While most forms of E. coli that exist are harmless, some types can make you (really) sick. 

Electron micrograph image of E. Coli bacteria

Your body houses E. coli naturally. This probiotic bacteria can be found in both healthy human and animal intestinal track, and the majority of it is harmless. In fact, E. coli can promote antibody production, helping to ward off infections. Unfortunately, there are also pathogenic forms of E. coli, which can wreak havoc on those who become infected.

The worst strain of this bacteria, E. coli O157:H7, has many horrible side effects including diarrhea, kidney failure, and even death. In the past 12 years, there have been 21 reported outbreaks of E. coli O157:H7 (😳). One reason why an E. coli infection from this strain can be detrimental is the complications it imposes on your body. Once this bacteria has made it inside your body, it produces a toxic substance that seeks out and attacks red blood cells. This is known as hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS). This syndrome causes kidney injury that many times requires intensive care, dialysis, and blood transfusions. 


Some of the most common sources of E. coli are: 

• Contaminated food, especially beef, raw milk and juices, soft cheeses, raw fruits and vegetables, and prepackaged cookie dough
• Contaminated water, including drinking untreated water and swimming in contaminated areas
• Animals and their environment: specifically cows, sheep, and goats. Not washing your hands carefully after touching an animal could lead to an E. coli infection
• Feces of infected people

To cure an E. coli infection you should drink plenty of fluids, and get as much rest as possible. Antibiotics should not be used to treat this infection!

You may be thinking why any of this is relevant. On April 16, 2018, the FDA stated that romaine lettuce growing in the Yuma region of Arizona is likely linked to the multi-state outbreak of E. coli O157:H7. There have been 172 reported cases of people becoming infected in 32 states across the country. Out of these 172 cases, 75 have been so severe that they required hospitalization, and unfortunately there has been one death. 

The  O157:H7 strain has virus DNA that it integrates into the bacterial chromosome. The bacterium can undergo binary fission normally, transmitting a copy of O157:H7 to each daughter cell. After many cellular divisions, there is a large population of infected bacteria. The end result of all of these divisions is the formation of a toxin, which is what ultimately infects someone who has eaten the contaminated food item. When they enter the body, they can directly attack your cells which may cause serious damage. 

So, the next time you reach for an item of produce, make sure you inspect and wash it carefully! It might just save your life.  The best way to prevent an E. coli infection is to follow the guidelines about what food to avoid when there is a reported outbreak. Or, grow your own!