The Science Behind Sadness: Unraveling the Mysteries of the Human Emotion

Sadness, the dark cloud that looms over our hearts, also has a scientific component! Yes, you heard right. Behind those sobs and depressing music, a fascinating scientific universe is at work. Therefore, prepare your lab coats and emotional goggles as we set out on a fun-filled adventure to discover the peculiar science of grief. We all experience sadness at some point in our lives because it is an emotion shared by all people. Sadness can have a significant negative effect on our mental and physical health, whether it is brought on by failure, personal loss, your first heartbreak or other difficult situations. But what precisely is sadness, and what processes take place in our bodies and minds when we experience it? In this blog, we will look into the complicated mechanisms that underlie the complex emotional state of sorrow and explore the science behind it.

Art by Malte Mueller

The Mood Molecules: A Neurochemical Tango

In our minds, sadness is like a chemical dance party. Those small messengers known as neurotransmitters are essential to our emotional experiences. Serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine are the main players when it comes to sadness. In times of sadness, serotonin, the "feel-good" neurotransmitter, takes a huge hit. It's as if the DJ of joy takes a vacation and leaves us with a sad mixtape. The party-starter dopamine is also involved in sadness. It's as though the energy on the dance floor wanes when its levels drop. Additionally, when norepinephrine, the sidekick of adrenaline, is out of balance, it can interfere with our ability to feel emotions.

The core of sorrow

The emotional brain, the source of sadness: the amygdala

The amygdala is the drama queen of our brains. This almond-shaped structure is in charge of handling negative emotions, such as sadness, but furthermore the amygdala does a lot more than handle sadness. The amygdala is in charge of managing aggression as well as perception of emotions including fear, sadness, and rage. In order for someone to be able to recognize similar situations in the future, the amygdala helps maintain memories of past events and emotions. It's similar to a director experiencing an emotional rollercoaster as they read instructions and create a show-stopping performance. According to studies, the amygdala is involved in the experience of sadness since it is particularly active during sad emotional states. The amygdala communicates with other brain areas, like the prefrontal cortex, which is in charge of logical thinking, but sometimes their communication gets lost in translation, leaving us feeling like we're stuck in a never-ending melodrama whenever we are sad.

 

When Sadness Throws a Party

Emotions can also be expressed by facial expressions, sounds, and bodily responses, such as when your heart beats faster because you're enthusiastic, or when you utter "woah" because you're interested by something. Additionally, emotions can lead to actions, such as yelling at someone when you're upset. 

The Stress Response Sadness might enter the party like an uninvited guest and startle our stress reaction. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, the stress response system, is now activated! When sadness strikes, the hypothalamus generates corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), starting a domino effect reaction. The pituitary gland comes next, acting as a DJ by releasing adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). When the adrenal glands are stimulated by this hormone, cortisol, the stress hormone, is produced. Our immune system, sleep patterns, and even our ability to think clearly are all suddenly compromised as cortisol turns our body into a dance floor of stress. 

Labeled brain; Emotions in the brain

The Social Connection Rhythm

Even though sadness has a gloomy beat, interactions with others aren't always bad. In fact sadness helps us out a lot. Because we are social beings, fulfilling connections are essential for maintaining our emotional health. Our brain's reward system can get a little off when we're sad, which drains our desire to interact with people. But fear not!! Social interaction and encouragement serve as the best dance partners against sadness, swooping in to cushion against its negative effects. So put on your dancing shoes, look for those supportive friendships, and groove your way to emotional flexibility!

 

The Evolutionary Benefit and Overall Benefits of Sadness

Sadness has an evolutionary function despite its bad label. It promotes social ties and can help in overcoming tricky situations. Sadness alerts people to your misery, evoking sympathy and support. By creating a social support system, this emotional response from others can improve our chances of survival. So, sadness serves as both a burden and a tool for developing and preserving connections. Even if it seems odd, there are many other benefits to sadness as well. According to research, sorrow can improve thinking and memory. When we are sad, we often think back on the past, review our priorities, and learn important lessons. It can act as an outlet for our personal growth, fostering qualities like resiliency, empathy, and a greater comprehension of both ourselves and others.

The fascinating scientific world of neurotransmitter DJs, dramatic amygdala, stress response parties, and the importance of human connections is hidden below the veil of sadness. Therefore, keep in mind that there is a scientific rhythm at work whenever you feel yourself overwhelmed by emotions in the future. Accept the dance, look for help, and have faith that someday the clouds will separate to show the brighter side of life. Keep grooving, my friends, and never forget that there is beauty even in the saddest of moments.

The Human Microbiome: A look into our microscopic world

Did you know the number of microorganisms in the human body is in the trillions, outnumbering our own cells by a ratio of at least 10 to 1, or that the estimated weight of microorganisms in the human body is 2 to 6 pounds or nearly the same as the weight of the brain? Well if you're like me you had no idea how significant and essential the human microbiome is to our lives, many operations throughout our body that keep us alive can not occur without the help of the human microbiome, let's dive deeper into this small and exciting world to learn the wonders of the human microbiome and their essential roles in digestion, immunity, and overall health!

The Human Microbiome 

What is the Human Microbiome?

The term "human microbiome" describes the assortment of microbes that live in different regions of the human body, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other microbes. Our skin, mouth, gut, reproductive organs, and other mucosal surfaces are home to these microbes. The dynamic and intricate ecosystem known as the human microbiome is essential to preserving our health and well-being. I think it is so important to learn about the human microbiome because of how intricate it is and how vital it is to our lives. The human microbiome has a very diverse composition that differs from person to person. It is affected by things like heredity, age, diet, hygiene standards, environment, and even the way we were born. Even though bacteria in the human microbiome are the microbes that have been studied the most, new research has broadened our understanding to encompass other microbial communities as well.

Composition of the Human Microbiome

The human microbiome is composed of many different microscopic organisms like bacteria, fungi, archaea, and other microbes. Let's take a deeper look at a few very common and very interesting microorganisms found in the human microbiome:

Bacteria

Bacteria under microscope

The microbes that make up the majority of the human microbiome and have received the most research are bacteria. They are essential for several body processes, including vitamin production, immune system control, and digestion. Particularly in the human gut, a wide variety of bacterial species, including Bacteroides, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria, can be found. Hopefully, you can now understand that bacteria are not always harmful to our bodies, many strains of bacteria are very beneficial.

Viruses

COVID-19 Virus up close

When I say the word virus what is the first thing that comes to your mind? I would assume you think of COVID-19 because of how prominent the virus has been for the past few years but there are soooo many other viruses that reside on or in our body at all times, isn't that crazy?! The most prevalent viruses in the microbiome are bacteriophages, which infect and multiply inside bacteria. In the gut and other settings, bacteriophages are extremely prevalent and have the ability to affect the makeup and activity of bacterial communities. Viruses can also directly harm a person's health, for instance by interfering with their immune system. Viruses have many key jobs in the microbiome like viral diversity, bacterial regulation, horizontal gene transfer, and stabilizing human health.

Fungus

C. albicans italicize

The human microbiome includes fungi, which can be found in numerous species on the skin, gut, mouth, and other mucosal surfaces. The microbiome frequently contains the fungi Candida, Malassezia, and Aspergillus. While certain fungi are helpful and support a balanced microbiome, others can cause diseases in specific circumstances. Although fungi are not as major a part of the human microbiome as bacteria or viruses, their existence and interactions within the body nevertheless have substantial effects on human health, including the regulation of the immune system and the metabolism of nutrients. The greater function of fungi in the human microbiome is still being studied by many scientists.

Roles of the Human Microbiome

The human microbiome is responsible for many jobs inside and outside the body including digestion, immunity, and overall human health. Let's take a look at these different roles and see why they must be done correctly for the human body to function properly!

Digestion

Drawing of the gut microbiome

In the human body, digestion is greatly influenced by the microbiome, especially the gut microbiome. Complex carbohydrates, such as dietary fiber, are broken down into smaller, more digestible molecules by the billions of microbes that live in the gut. The breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids is accelerated by these microorganisms because they create enzymes that humans lack. The gut microbiome ferments indigestible substances into useful byproducts like short-chain fatty acids, which fuel the cells lining the colon and promote colon health as a whole. Additionally, the microbiome assists in the synthesis of necessary vitamins and nutrients that the human body cannot generate, such as vitamin K and several types of B vitamins. The microbiome works with the immune system to maintain a balanced and healthy gut environment, reinforces the gut barrier to keep infections out, and helps the body detoxify toxic substances.

Immune system and immunity

The human immune system

In the human body, immunity is greatly influenced by the microbiome. The trillions of microorganisms that live inside and on top of our bodies have a strong relationship with the immune system, influencing how it develops, works, and reacts. The microbiome serves as an instructor, teaching the immune system to identify pathogens and react correctly while retaining tolerance to safe chemicals. This interaction lowers the risk of allergies, autoimmune illnesses, and other immune-related diseases by ensuring that immune cells mature properly and that immune tolerance is established. By fighting for resources and space, the microbiome also serves as a barrier against infections, driving them out and preventing their colonization. Additionally, the microbiome affects the generation and distribution of regulatory and T cells, two types of immune cells that help regulate immune responses.

How to keep your microbiome healthy

Now that you know what the human microbiome is and why it is so important for the well-being of all humans here as some great tips and tricks to keep your microbiome healthy and operating at peak performance! 

Fix your diet

Average balanced diet

Choose a variety of fresh produce, healthy grains, legumes, and other plant-based foods to include in your diet. These offer vital minerals and dietary fiber that feed the good bacteria in the gut. To encourage a diverse microbiome, strive for a varied diet. The microbiome's balance can be disturbed by eating a lot of highly processed food and sugar. Reduce your intake of sugary beverages, refined cereals, and processed foods because they can have a negative effect on microbial diversity and encourage the development of dangerous germs. Include fermented foods in your diet, such as yogurt, kefir, sauerkraut, kimchi, and kombucha. Live beneficial bacteria found in these foods can help replenish and diversify the microbiome.

Manage your physical health

Man running

Exercise frequently since it has been demonstrated to have a good impact on the microbiome's makeup. Exercise increases intestinal motility, which helps with waste removal and fosters microbial variety. To stay hydrated and support healthy digestion and microbial function, drink plenty of water. Water aids in the movement of nutrients, the elimination of waste, and the maintenance of the microbiome's healthy habitat. The general health of the microbiome is influenced by maintaining a healthy lifestyle, which includes regular sleep schedules, abstaining from tobacco use, and limiting alcohol intake.

Are You Smarter Than a Slime Mold?

Have you ever found yourself sitting on a subway train in New York City marveling at the subway system's astonishing efficiency? You ask yourself, "Who came up with all of this? This must have taken them forever!" With just a quick Google search, your curious thoughts would be proven true, as it did in fact take engineers years to create the subway system that shuttles millions of people around New York City today. While, yes, this is an impressive feat by engineers, what if you were told that a unicellular organism could map out the same route in just a small fraction of the time it took humans? Well, the species of slime mold, Physarum polycephalum , can do just that, and it's absolutely marvelous! 

The Experiment 

Through countless explorations of different ecosystems, scientists began to notice just how good this species of mold was at navigating through its environment to the nearest food source in the most efficient way possible. In an effort to investigate just how capable this slime mold was, Japanese scientists proposed an experiment. The slime mold was placed in the middle of an agar plate with oats placed throughout, arranged in the pattern of Japanese cities around Tokyo. 

Slime Mold Experiment

When presented with this scenario, the slime mold slowly began to create the most efficient route to each of its nutrient sources. When scientists took a closer look at what exactly the mold had done, they noticed the mold's route looked awfully similar to the current Japanese subway system route. When they compared the two, the scientists found the routes to be almost identical! Fascinating, right!? But how exactly was this unicellular organism able to carry out such a complex function?   

While the mere fact that this unicellular organism is able to carry out this function is quite impressive, once you begin to understand what exactly the mold is doing on a molecular level, the feat becomes even more remarkable. 

Slime Mold: What is it? 

The slime mold Physarum polycephalum is a eukaryotic , single-celled, soil-dwelling amoeba . That's right! It is NOT a fungus! Although it is commonly mistaken for one considering its ideal environment tends to be more damp and dark like many fungi. This species of amoeba follows a growth cycle that is far different from the one that we learned about in AP Bio this year. Instead of the growth of this organism being driven by cytoplasmic divisions and increased cell numbers, a cellular life cycle, it follows an acellular life cycle, as the organism continues to stay single-celled throughout its entire life regardless of how large it may grow. While the cell itself does not divide or multiply, the nuclei inside of the cell do. The cell is still undergoing the process of mitosis, however, it is skipping cytokinesis , allowing the cell to maintain its single-celled structure while still having the same amount of genetic material a multicellular organism would have. Ultimately, this species of slime mold grows to be a giant blob of a cell with many nuclei dispersed throughout. Although it may be surprising, the process of mitosis without cytokinesis happens in humans as well! Certain cell types in humans including osteoclasts (cells that break down bone tissue) and skeletal muscle fibers actually aren't very far off from this species of slime mold, as all three cell types undergo mitosis without cytoplasmic divisions.  

With this unique blob-like structure of the organism also comes quite a valuable function. After all, which I'm sure we all have ingrained in our heads by now (thanks Ms. Eckert!!), a change in structure equals a change in function! Since there aren't any barriers or walls separating any one part of the cell from another, fluids can very easily flow throughout the organism. This may be why the species is so good at navigating through complex environments, as important signaling molecules that signal the retraction or protraction of the organism are easily able to flow throughout the entirety of the cell. 

How Does It Move? 

While this species of slime mold may be good at maneuvering throughout its environment, it does not navigate the way many may believe it to. When told that an organism is good at navigation, many may make the assumption that the organism "knows" where it's going and where to turn in order to reach its end destination as efficiently as possible. While intuitive, this assumption is false! This particular organism does not have a brain to think like us humans. It is unable to make the conscious decision to turn left or turn right. Instead, the mold simply grows wherever it pleases, or at least initially it does. 

The mold first begins to grow throughout its entire environment, sending tendrils of itself out into its surrounding territory. Essentially, these tendrils help the mold to scope out where exactly the nutrient-rich spots may reside in its environment. Once the organism has found all of the nutrient-rich spots, it begins to retract the tendrils of itself that are connected to spots in the environment that do not contain as many nutrients, as this part of its territory is no longer of use to the mold. Slowly, the slime mold retracts all parts of itself that aren't necessary for survival, leaving behind the most efficient pathways to the most nutrient-dense spots in its environment. Isn't that just fascinating??! 

Where Can I Find It? 

Although the concept of a slime mold may seem foreign to many, it's actually quite likely that any Montclair resident would be able to find it in their own town! Hemitrichia serpula , Ceratiomyxa fructiculosa, and Lycogala epidendrum are just three of the many species of slime mold that can be found in New Jersey. One species, in particular, may even be mistaken for dog vomit! Yuck!! 

Dog Vomit Slime Mold

Although it may look like a dog has thrown up on the side of a tree, that foamy yellow goop is, thankfully, just a harmless species of slime mold!  This species of slime mold, Fuligo septica, can be found all throughout the world, usually congregating on bark mulch after significant rainfall or over-watering. Kinda gross, but pretty darn cool if I do say so myself! 

Dangers of Declawing: Spare Your Feline Friend

Whether used for personality quizzes or classroom discourse one of the most significant questions throughout childhood and possibly lifelong: who is better cats or dogs?

For me, it always has been (and will be) cats. Now, I am not here to argue who's better (cats of course!) as I do have three cats (Floofy, Squeaky, and Hank) and one dog (Bird) - not to mention 20 chickens. You also can't forget about two previous cats of mine that have also been family pets: Jersey and Spotty. 

At my elementary school, we had something called morning care and after care. These programs were for kids to either arrive to school earlier or stay a bit later after school to make it easier for parents to pick up and drop of their kids. One of the counselors had a roommate whose cat gave birth to 12 kittens over the span of a couple weeks. So, naturally having a cat enthusiast family, my parents and I chose to adopt one of the kittens. After going through a series of names, we decided on the extremely creative name: Floofy. 

The cat in question

In our living room we have two leather chairs that my mom was quite fond of. Unfortunately for those chairs, Floofy was an athletic kitten who would jump up and down and run all over the place. In an attempt to save the chairs my mom asked that Floofy be declawed. Unfortunately, we were not aware of the horrors that declawing could do to a cat and the vet removed her front claws. Obviously, looking back this was not a smart decision and ultimately did not save the chairs that my mom so loved. So why was this act of declawing Floofy so inhumane?

Well, firstly, we have to ask the question: why do people declaw their cats? There are various reasons as to why people choose to declaw their cats. Some owners are concerned about their furniture, or the possibility of getting scratched, or they have always had declawed cats, or they want to "level the playing field" between their cats. While these might be completely valid reasons, there are easier, cheaper, and less destructive methods to solving the listed problems.

So, I have mentioned the term declawing multiple times but what does it actually entail? Declawing is the removal of each front toe at the first joint. In order to not cause readers to faint I won't go into too much detail about how the toe is removed - just know that the cat is put under anesthesia and the area is sanitized in order to remove the claw and bone portion.

Diagram showing before vs after a declawing procedure

Each veterinarian differs in the method they use. Some use scalpels whereas others use heavy-duty nail clippers. In order to prevent substantial bleeding afterwards it is recommended that the wound is sutured or closed with surgical glue. If you still are not following on why this removes important parts of a cat, I will provide you with the human equivalent pictured below. Imagine all of your fingertips removed at the first knuckle. This is what it would look like:

Featuring my hand (I could be a hand model don't you think?)

So, why is removing this claw and bone portion so detrimental? Well, firstly we have to cover what having claws allows a cat to do. Claws allow cats to scratch which creates the ability to scent and mark territory, and they allow cats to kneed which is a way of showing pleasure. Cats are typically able to climb to high places which creates vantage points and a safer environment, and without claws, cats can no longer have a full body stretch. Additionally, there are potential complications of declawing a cat. Let's go through them.

Complications after surgery: Some cats have claw regrowth or abscesses.

Pain: Just like humans, it is assumed that cats are able to feel phantom pain - pain in limbs that no longer exist. And since there are usually 10 amputations (20 if you include the hind legs), there is a likely chance that there will be phantom pains. Even if your cat seems "fine" there are ways to suffer in silence just like some humans do too.

Stiff joints / Arthritis: The joints essentially become stiff and "frozen" as the tendons that previously controlled the joints retract. But my cat makes scratching motions so they wouldn't miss their claws then, right? Well it is more realistic to assume that those cats are trying to stretch their stiff body parts and unfortunately, not succeeding. These body parts are so stiff that the toes joints are not able to be moved, even if the cat is under anesthetics.

Problems using the litter box: After going through surgery, some cats especially older ones tend to use anything but what they are actually supposed to use. So, if you like cleaning up cat urine and spending extra money to remove the pee, then declawing is for you. Personally, I would rather take a few scratches to my couch than having it peed on.

Biting: As claws are a primary defense mechanism for cats, when they are removed cats tend to shift towards biting as a defense mechanism.

Personality changes: As a result of no longer being able to stretch fully, removal of primary defense mechanisms, arthritis and joint stiffness and pain, many cats exhibit changes in behaviors.

Neglect / death: Due to all of the above symptoms, many owners no longer see their cats as desirable. Unfortunately, this results in neglect whether trapped in certain rooms, dropped off at shelters, or abandoned. Forcing a declawed cat into the wild is usually a death sentence as cats are not able to defend themselves from other wildlife (cats, dogs, predators, etc.) or natural disasters. Tragically, many declawed cats are seen as desirable to serve as live bait for fighting dogs or be sold to function as animal testers.

Are there other more humane options to remove a cats claws? Unfortunately, there are not. While tendonectomies are an alternative, they still result in constant nait trimmings to decrease risk of injury and often do result in a declawing. But then why do some veterinarians recommend declawing? Well, they are actually in violation of American Veterinary Medical Association policy. And if you are one susceptible to peer pressure, just think that 25 countries consider declawing inhumane and made it illegal to perform those procedures.

So what can a person do to prevent their cat scratching them or the furniture? Provide your cat with places they can scratch. Personally, I recommend having multiple cat scratchers throughout your home as they will usually utilize those instead of furniture. Scratching posts should be tall enough that your cat can get a full enough stretch. It is not necessary to provide cats with full size cat trees (while it is nice for the cats) but it is necessary to provide spots where your cat can scratch. Also to prevent getting scratched yourself, try to read into your cat's behavior. If they seem avoidant and resistant to contact, do not pursue and ignore their wishes. If you ignore their boundaries, they might lash out and attack.

I hope that reading this post has either changed your mind about declawing cats or at least made you a bit more knowledgeable on the topic. I hope that looking forward you will make the best decision for your cat and keep in mind the negative effects of declawing. 

The Science Behind Why We Get Deja Vu: Is there Something Wrong With my Brain?

Have you ever walked into a room or been to a place and felt like you have been there before? But deep down your brain knows that you haven't been there. Sometimes the feeling is uncomfortable and often can leave you wondering if you're losing it. Don't worry though because it is normal; almost everybody gets the feeling of déjà vu. I get it, you get it, your mother gets it. In fact, almost 97% of the world population experiences it at least once in their lifetime. The word déjà vu means "already seen" in French and the term is credited to be named by French philosopher Émile Boriac in 1876. 

Personally, I get déjà vu all the time: in class, at home, or at work. It always feels like I already experienced this moment or visited this space. Déjà vu has always interested me because I couldn't tell whether I was going crazy or I had actually experienced something similar. Sometimes, I trick myself into believing I already know the outcome because I believe that I have experienced the situation before. After researching, I discovered that déjà vu occurs when the wires in your brain get crossed.  The wires in your brain are called axons which are extensions of your brain's neurons that connect with other neurons in your brain in order to send signals to the rest of your body. The part of your brain responsible for déjà vu is the hippocampus in each temporal lobe. Parts of your brain can get incorrectly activated and other regions of your brain have to do a fact check and recall past memories to see if they are connected to this moment. Leaving a strange sense of déjà  Each person has two temporal lobes. The temporal lobes contain a hippocampus which is responsible for storing your short term memory. The temporal lobes are also responsible for your ability to recall words, people, places, language, and your ability to interpret emotions in other people. The hippocampus is responsible for memory recollection and familiarity.

 

                          Location of the Hippocampus                    Location of the Temporal Lobes

The hippocampus contains three major regions: subiculum, hippocampus proper and dentate gyrus. The hippocampus proper is responsible for decision making and memory storage, the dentate gyrus acts as a preprocessor for incoming information, and the subiculum is responsible for memory retrieval. There are two distinct classes of neurons in this area of the brain: projection neurons which send information to more distant parts of the brain and interneurons which send information to nearby neurons. The neurons in control of excitatory synapses tend to be the principal neurons. For clarification, excitatory synapses is when activity from one neuron influences the activity of a nearby neuron triggering a neurological or physical response. 

Hippocampal Anatomy: Source

It is normal for a healthy brain to experience déjà vu at least a few times per year. The feeling is often associated with high levels of exhaustion, being busy, or stressed out. Déjà vu occurrences are more frequent in people who have high level college degrees, travel, or exhibit high levels of intelligence. For the brain, high levels of stress and exhaustion can cause cloudy long term memory. Long term memory storage is associated with the right temporal lobe. 

While experiencing déjà vu occasionally is completely normal, sometimes déjà vu is associated with serious underlying health conditions. More frequent occurrences of déjà vu are associated with people who commonly have seizures. These types of people typically have central nervous system disorders such as epilepsy or narcolepsy. Epilepsy is when clusters of nerve cells in the brain misfire resulting in abnormal bodily response that is presented through a seizure. The most common form of a seizure that people with epilepsy experience is a focal seizure. People who commonly experience focal seizures report to experience intense déjà vu before the seizure occurs.  This occurs because of the  misfiring neurons that form an inccorrect connection between parts of your brain responsible for memory storage, which is in the hippocampus. A focal seizure is when the nerve cells in your brains send out uncontrollable electrical signals. Focal seizures impact motor control (ability to control muscles), sensory feeling (tasting, smelling, seeing, or feeling something that is not really there), sudden intense feelings of happiness, nausea, or anger, repetitive behaviors (blinking, twitching, or involuntarily moving your mouth). The neurotransmitter responsible for excitability is the amino acid glutamate. Glutamate receptors are locatated all throughout the central nervous system which is essential for maintaining optimal glutamate levels in the extracellular space. Glutamate is extremely important to memory, cognition, and mood regulation; too much or too little could have negative affects on your mental health.

  Focal Vs. Generalized Seizure Occurrence. Source

Don't worry, younger people like you and me are more likely to experience spontaneous déjà vu because our brains are more active, more excitable. The temporal lobe in our brains will misfire or get overexcited more frequently than an older persons brain. 

The Scientific Miracle of IVF!

I have always been asked where my passion for science comes from. For many people I would assume, it's the illness of a family member or some other scientific experience they had when they were young, but for me it starts at the very beginning with my conception. Okay, okay I know how that sounds, but I'm the product of an unconventional conception. While my friends had tales of the birds and the bees, my parents had a different story to tell - one involving petri dishes, lab coats, and a dash of scientific magic. Yes, my entrance into this world was orchestrated with the help of a brilliant scientific technique called IVF. So what exactly is that?

IVF stands for In Vitro Fertilization. It is a complex assisted reproductive technology that involves combining an egg and sperm outside of the body in a laboratory setting, and then transferring the resulting embryo back into the uterus for implantation and pregnancy. IVF is a complicated process that requires the help of many medical professionals to maximize its success rates. IVF is made up of several steps: ovarian stimulation, egg retrieval, sperm collection, fertilization, embryo development, embryo transfer, and implantation and pregnancy. 

Potential IVF Cycle Timeline (CNY Fertility)

So why are there so many steps and why are they each crucial to the IVF process? Well, ovarian stimulation increases the number of mature eggs that can be retrieved, which increases the probability of a live birth. While the medication given to stimulate the ovaries (estrogen and progesterone) can create complications such as hyper-stimulation, IVF patients are closely monitored by doctors and fertility specialists to ensure their safety. Egg retrieval requires a small surgical procedure to collect the mature eggs that will be fertilized. The sperm sample that is going to be used is typically collected on the same day, either through a partner or a donor. There are two types of fertilization that can be used during IVF: Conventional IVF Fertilization (when the sperm fertilizes the egg naturally when they are combined in a petri dish) and Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI).

Egg being fertilized in a petri dish! (CNY Fertility)

After fertilization the embryo is placed inside an incubator (to act as an artificial fallopian tube) for up to 7 days. Embryos are screened for quality and growing potential. The embryos can be frozen at this point to be implanted later or they can be implanted "freshly." It's important to note that not all embryos will successfully implant and result in a pregnancy. Some embryos may fail to develop or may be discarded due to abnormalities. Additionally, there is a possibility of multiple pregnancies (e.g., twins or triplets) if more than one embryo is transferred. Fun fact, my mom had three embryos transferred but I was the only one that stuck; I could have been a triplet, so cool!

Chances of multiples because of IVF (Remembryo)

So when did this process first become possible and what could the future look like for it? Well the first "test-tube" baby was born on July 25, 1978 in northwest England. At first the success rates for IVF were in the single digits but now those rates are nearly 50. So clearly IVF has improved so much since it's beginnings but where could it go from here? In several countries that picture includes genetic engineering which has to do with modifying DNA for specific traits. It is standard procedure to test an embryo created via IVF for genetic diseases that could alter or inhibit life, but where does one draw the line. Chinese scientist successfully modified the first human embryo which led to several large bioethical discussions. Is it morally right to alter human embryos for traits such as athleticism or intelligence? The jury is still out!

Model of modifying DNA (Engineers Network)

As a kid, I loved explaining that I was a scientific miracle. Of, course being a child of IVF had its quirks. I'd jokingly claim that I was the "chosen one," the result of a clandestine experiment to create the world's most charming and hilarious individual. And, of course, I took every opportunity to tease my mom, saying things like, "You had to go through all that trouble just to have me? Was I really worth all that?!"

People would wonder if I had inherited any superpowers or if my DNA was somehow imbued with scientific brilliance. Alas, (as far as you know ;) ) no mutant abilities or extraordinary knowledge were bestowed upon me, much to my disappointment. But hey, I do have a unique story to tell, and that's worth something!

But beyond the silliness, being a child of IVF taught me some valuable lessons. It showed me the power of innovation, how dedicated professionals can turn dreams into reality. It taught me to appreciate the lengths people are willing to go to for the chance to experience the joy of parenthood. And most importantly, it instilled me in a sense of wonder for science.

So, dear readers, if you ever find yourself curious about the science behind IVF or if you encounter a child like me with a tale to tell, approach it with an open mind and a willingness to embrace the wonder of scientific miracles. After all, in this vast and intricate universe, anything is possible - even the birth of a child who sees the humor in their own scientific origins.

Why You Might Actually Want to be a Ginger

Have you ever made fun of a redhead, a.k.a. a ginger, before? Insulted them because they were different? Because of their unique hair color that you were jealous you could never have? Don't even try to lie and say that you never have because, as a ginger myself, I often fall victim to these insults, especially from many of you reading this post right now. 

A redhead (ginger)!

Not only am I constantly insulted and made fun of, I am also faced with, although less often, many questions regarding the myths surrounding my distinct red hair color (stupid ones, I might add). Out of all the myths I've heard, the most absurd one would have to be that "gingers are going extinct!" Since only about 2% of the world population are gingers, I understand why many would believe that myth; however, the real reason for this scarcity of gingers actually has to do with genetics - the trait for red hair is recessive, meaning it is often masked by the dominant traits of brown/blonde hair, thus leading to its rarity.

Anyways...that's enough about myths! Back to what I was saying! What many of you blondes and brunettes fail to realize is that the roles should be reversed, meaning I, along with all other gingers, should actually be the one insulting you. Now, you may be wondering what a person with red hair, supposedly the worst and most embarrassing hair color in your eyes, could possibly have to say about your amazing blonde/brown hair. Well, that is exactly what I am going to talk about today, and it has a little something to do with pain tolerance... 

What Exactly is Pain Tolerance?

Before I dive deep into what exactly makes gingers better than both brunettes and blondes, you must first understand what pain tolerance is and its effect on everyone's day to day lives. Pain tolerance is the maximum amount of pain that a person can bear and/or tolerate, and it differs from person to person. This specificity of each person is due to many factors, including genes, age, gender, and if you haven't already guessed it, hair color! 

This is the part where I am finally going to tell you why gingers, myself included, are better...we have a higher pain tolerance than most! Basically what this means is that we are the best. I'm obviously just kidding...or am I? Anyways, what this actually means is that we can withstand a higher amount of pain than everyone else. For example, have you ever lifted a hot bowl out of the microwave, almost dropping it at one point because of how hot it was? This, right here, is a perfect example of pain tolerance. Those who have a higher pain tolerance, such as myself, are able to carry that hot bowl much longer without almost dropping it, than those with a lower pain tolerance, such as all you brunettes and blondes out there. 

A system used to measure your pain tolerance

Let's Go More In Depth - Why do Gingers Have a Higher Pain Tolerance?

Now that you understand pain tolerance in a basic sense, let us dive deeper into why gingers, in particular, have a much higher pain tolerance than most. I'll give you a hint, it all has to do with genetics! 

Within the pigment-producing skin cells of all humans, known as melanocytes, are melanocortin 1 receptors, receptors that determine how much pheomelanin and dark coloration the body can produce (they basically determine how tan you can get). Gingers, seeing as we never get tan, lack properly functioning melanocortin I receptors. This, although extremely sad, is actually beneficial to us, in that having non-functional (tan-determining) receptors is actually one of the main reasons why we have such a high pain tolerance, something all you blondes and brunettes wouldn't understand. 

To go more in depth, having non-functional melanocortin I receptors leads to a reduction in the amount of POMC, a protein that stimulates the release of specific hormones (melanocyte stimulating hormones and beta-endorphins) into the body, being produced. With less POMC being produced, less of those hormones are released, bringing about an unbalance between the pain-inhibiting and pain-enhancing receptors within the body that control a person's pain tolerance. Although reading the word "unbalance" may sound worrisome, in actuality this "unbalance" allows for the increased activation of opioid receptors involved in preventing pain; ultimately, raising our pain tolerance and making us the best! 

A closer look at melanocytes!

So there you have it! Now you know why people with red hair (gingers), including myself obviously, are better than all those who have either blonde or brown hair. 

How Does This High Pain Tolerance Affect Other Aspects of Life?

After reading about a high pain tolerance and why exactly gingers have it, you are probably wondering just how beneficial it can actually be. Well, for one, it makes us superior over everyone else! More importantly though, having a high pain tolerance means that gingers often require lower doses of certain medications, one of which being morphine, as well as other opioids. 

A type of opioid - morphine

What Have Scientists Learned From Studying the High Pain Tolerance of Gingers?

I know you're probably tired of reading about why gingers are the best, but this is the last section, I promise! From studying the high pain tolerance of gingers, and why exactly they have it, scientists are hopeful that they will soon be able to use that information to create many new medications to treat pain. 

Although studies are still ongoing, scientists hope to create these new medications by manipulating all the signals, receptors, etc. that play a part in determining a person's pain tolerance. 

I hope that after reading this blog, you have come to realize two very important things: one, the insults and myths need to stop; and two, gingers are the best (because of our high pain tolerance, of course)! 

The Science Behind Happiness

Welcome, my dear readers, to an adventure through the science behind happiness! Happiness is something we all wish for; it is the thing we long for during finals weeks, and it is the thing that invades our most precious moments. But what exactly is happiness? For many, happiness is a positive emotion associated with joy. But in this blog, I hope to help you unravel the fascinating science behind what makes us smile and laugh. 

What determines happiness? The answer to that question lies in the pie and not the pie you eat on Thanksgiving but the scientific kind created through research. Many may assume that happiness is an emotion, so it must be determined by your experiences and actions like journaling, volunteering, and laughing. Still, scientists have also found that not only is one of the underlying factors of happiness circumstances and intentional activities, but it is also predetermined by the biology and genetics of a person. Of course, this doesn't mean you have no say in your happiness or that next time you're in a fight with your parents, you can say you made me genetically unhappy. But it does mean that not all of your happiness is determined by just one thing.  

Happiness is like a pie.

So how can scientists discover that some of the underlying factors of happiness are due to genetics? For many scientists, the studying of emotions, mainly those such as happiness, has been found to be a significant challenge. How do you measure something as subjective as happiness? After all, our definitions and levels of happiness are all different. To answer this question, scientists have brainstormed and looked at other research and tools, including identical twins; yes, some of the very people you are friends have the ability to be a vital tool for genetic studies. But why identical twins? Identical twins have the same genes making them prime candidates to understand their psychological differences while also studying the level of variance in their trait attributes due to genetic variation and their differences due to environmental similarities and differences. 

Recent research by scientists such as Susan Zinn has been found to support that close to 40% of human happiness is a result of your genes. In research like the Journal of Happiness Studies, researchers have found that certain variations among genes may predispose individuals to experience more positive emotions. Other studies, such as a 2018 study in Norway, found that certain personality traits inherited from parents influenced the percentage of happiness determined by genetics. Some of these traits include neuroticism, extraversion, and disposition.

So what does it mean for you? Well, it could mean a lot of things, especially considering that we are always learning more through science and that new research is constantly being found through scientific studies and observations. While this may seem unfair that you may not have as much predisposition to happiness as other people, you still have a say in your own emotions, and that doesn't mean you can never be as happy as someone else. This is truly only part of the foundation of your happiness, and it is very important to remember that happiness is not entirely determined through your genetic makeup and that your experiences and actions can also determine your feelings. 

    Genetic Happiness

One of the other scientific factors behind the bliss we call happiness is the neurological chemicals found in your body. Some of these hormones you may even know of include Serotonin, Dopamine, Oxytocin, and Endorphins. 

Your happiness Hormones

Let's start with the superstar of happiness hormones, Dopamine. The hormone dopamine is often associated with pleasure, reward, and motivation. This chemical is part of the reward system found in your brain, and when you accomplish a goal or engage in fun activities, dopamine floods your brain. This rush from Dopamine gives your brain a pat on the back and motivates you to keep experiencing delightful experiences that can cause you to feel greater levels of happiness. 

Next up is the mood-lifting hormone serotonin. This hormone is very important for the regulation of sleep, mood, and appetite. When you have optimal serotonin levels, you can feel calm and happy. You can boost your serotonin levels in many ways, including exercise, sun exposure, and being in nature.

Have you ever experienced a good old fashion euphoric rush after a workout or long laugh? Well, you can thank endorphins for that fantastic sensation! Endorphins are our bodies natural painkillers and mood enhancers. This hormone inhibits the transmission of pain and enhances our mood. Some easy ways to increase your endorphin levels are exercising, laughing, or even eating dark chocolate. 

When it comes to the warm and fuzzy oxytocin, it will be found center stage. It is known as the "love hormone" because it is associated with bonding and trust. In addition, this hormone helps create a sense of love and empathy. Oxytocin is released Through physical touch and acts of kindness, creating an amazing sense of warmth. 

Boost your happiness

So how do you feel happiness? Well, there are many ways; one of the easiest ways to feel happiness is to exercise. Exercising causes a release of chemicals that boost your sense of happiness while suppressing emotions of stress. Another way you can increase your happiness levels is through relationships. Research has found a connection between people's relationship strength and their levels of happiness. Some other ways you can increase your levels of happiness are by practicing gratitude, meditating, getting sleep, and helping others.   

Did you know Finland is the happiest country in the world? For the past 6 years, Finland has kept its streak of being the world's happiest country. Primarily based on the Gallup World Poll evaluations, the World Happiness Report was created to rank countries by their happiness levels. Some reasons for Finland's happiness streak are low crime levels, a high standard of living, a strong education system, and overall equality.  

Although the U.S. isn't number one as of now in the World Happiness Report, that doesn't mean places in the U.S. haven't taken strides to help further people's education on happiness. At Yale, located in New Haven, Connecticut, Laurie Santa, a professor of psychology, has created a class called the Science of Well-Being. What initially was created as a one-time course has become one of Yale's most popular classes. Throughout the class, students were taught to track sleep patterns, keep a gratitude journal, and perform acts of kindness, alongside many other things. For many students, this class has significantly impacted their mindset and habits, especially following the pandemic when many struggled to find ways to protect their mental health.