My Ulterior Motives

I enjoy long showers, although I try to be a little more conscious about wasting water compared to my teenage years when my father used to ask my mother if I was washing each hair individually. When I take a shower on a sunny day, if I am lucky, the light will hit the glass shower door just right to create perfect rainbows on the wall and the floor. They are very geometrical and crisp and they bring me joy. 

A shower rainbow

The shower door is beveled and creates a prism that separates the visible white light into the wavelengths we know as colors. No matter how many times I see this ROYGBIV display, I feel joy. I sometimes start to think about what the world would look like if our retinas had photoreceptors for infrared or ultraviolet light. Sometimes I think about the molecule known as chlorophyll and how its electrons get excited if the right wavelength hits it (that's the basis of life on Earth by the way--no chlorophyll means no oxygen and no food). And sometimes I don't think anything other than, "Gosh, that sure is pretty."

When I was pursuing my MAT in Biological Sciences at Montclair State University, I was asked to write a paper describing my philosophy of teaching. I don't know where that paper is anymore because I've been through a few computers since then but I do distinctly remember saying that I saw myself as a tour guide to the natural world. I feel comfortable saying that not much has changed when considering my teaching philosophy. Of course I want my students to learn the fundamentals of biology and receive high scores on the AP exam. I also want them to develop the skills to succeed in college. But I have ulterior motives. I hope that my class will help students feel joy as they venture out into the world. I also hope the content they learn in my class might be able to offer them comfort, too. I can think of dozens upon dozens of times that the natural world has brought me both joy and solace and I'm going to share a few with you.

A few years ago, I was sitting on the front porch on a warm early summer evening. The fireflies (or lightning bugs depending on where you live) were flashing and I noticed a couple of fireflies in the flowers in a bed right next to me. I watched them flash at each other and then they did pretty much what every adult firefly exists to do--mate. The chemical reaction in the fireflies' light organs that creates the bioluminescence of summer nights is fascinating. The specifics of the flash patterns are also fascinating. The fact that the enzyme luciferase, which allows a firefly to glow, is routinely used in molecular biology labs is fascinating, too. Fireflies are, indeed, fascinating all around!

Calvin & Hobbes: One of my husband's favorite comics. How cool would it be if we could bioluminescence? 

A firefly creates light with almost 100% efficiency.

Although I enjoy insect watching, it's birds that bring me the most joy. Can you think of a type of wildlife that we can so easily observe even from the comforts of our own home? Birds for the win. We have a bird feeder right across from our kitchen window. When I am washing dishes, I often stare out the window at the birds. One day in the early summer I saw an adult female cardinal feeding a bird that most definitely was not a cardinal. The bird she was feeding was almost as large as she was and looked nothing like her--it was a ridiculous display. I watched for a while and marveled at the Brown-headed cowbird species, which are North America's most common brood parasites. The female cowbird doesn't build a nest and instead lays its eggs in other species' nest. So crafty! So devious! The cowbird doesn't need to expend the energy raising its young to pass on its genes. Evolution produces some pretty creative and entertaining adaptations.

A Wilson's Warbler raising a young (but larger) cowbird chick. Photo from Beth Hamel

I am not a winter person--I crave photons, warmth and green during the winter months. One thing, though, that has brought me joy during this often dismal season are winter ducks. They are badasses. We need to see beyond mallards, which are lovely, but not badasses. Winter ducks such as surf scoters are seemingly impervious to the frigid and rough winter ocean. When a wave is about to break on them, they deftly dive under water. I have not seen a surf scoter up close but I have seen other winter ducks up close and personal. If you venture out to the Barnegat Bay in winter, you may see Harlequin ducks--they are tough but also fancy. I took the picture below years ago, while I was still in grad school working towards my MAT.

The Harlequin Ducks of Barnegat

Our region is these ducks' Florida. During the winter, looking out my kitchen window at the winter birds (I'm talking about you, juncos!) and looking out at the gray ocean at the tough-as-nails ducks brings me a sense of well-being and comfort. There these birds are year after year without fail just doing their thing. No matter what atrocities are going on in the world, the winter birds still come. And there is the sense of solace. I enjoy these living but non-human beings precisely because they are not human. We share an ecosystem with these animals and yes we are connected, which can tragically be very detrimental for them. But, when I look at these animals, I am focusing outward and not inward on my own struggles. And I am grateful for that.

It's not just animals that bring me joy and comfort. How could I not talk about plants? I do everything I can to reduce what some call "plant blindness" in my students. We grow all year long and there is not a summer that goes by that I don't enjoy my moonflowers grown from seeds in my classroom. If you peruse this blog, you will find many posts from students about plants, specifically plants right outside the school classrooms. I may be biased but I think it's some good reading.

A perfect marriage of plant + bird that brought me joy is the cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinalis) and Ruby-throated hummingbird. A couple of summers ago, I planted a cardinal flower in my front yard specifically for the purpose of attracting hummingbirds. I was excited because the flower was blooming but I was lamenting to my mom on the phone that I had not seen any hummingbirds yet. Just as I said those words, I looked out the window and what did I see but a Ruby-throated hummingbird hovering around the flower drinking its nectar. It was a magical moment more magical than any moments I had at Walt Disney World as a child. This bird-plant relationship is even more special the more you know about it. The cardinal flower doesn't expend the energy making its sugary nectar for altruistic reasons--it gets something in return: pollination. The hummingbird's long, thin beak is nicely adapted to gather the nectar from the tubular flowers and the flowers are structurally adapted to deposit pollen in the hummingbird's head. As the bird systematically drinks from the flowers, it's carrying out cardinal flower cross-pollination. Another instance where the brilliance of evolution leaves me with a sense of wonder and satisfaction.

Notice the cardinal flower's stamen gently depositing pollen on the hummingbird's head. Photo credit: Mary Ann Borge https://the-natural-web.org/

AP Biology is a demanding but rewarding course and it's not an easy one to teach. But I still think of myself as a tour guide. I show them what I love about the natural world. I hope they view the world a bit differently come June. I sometimes gaze out at my students and recall how it feels to be young like them--their world is full of excitement, hope, and potential. I am sure that they will have interesting jobs, see the world, fall in love, make a life for themselves. But we all know life serves up heartbreak, disappointment and pain, too, which they will not be able to avoid. My students always give me hope and make me laugh. My hope is that something--anything--they learned in my classroom has brought them joy and will continue to bring them joy in the future. I also hope that they will feel a sense of comfort and solace as they look outward at this beautiful Earth that we are lucky enough to call home. As far as ulterior motives for teaching go, I'm not losing any sleep over mine.

If there are any seniors that actually took the time to read this post, congratulations on graduating! 

Breaking down the Climate Breakdown

Global heating? Emissions?? Cow flatulence??? The climate crisis has been at the center of conversations as of late, and rightfully so. We have a serious problem: not only is the state of our planet declining but so is the safety and security of the future generations of people to inhabit it. The current political atmosphere around climate change is marked by accusations, denying, and big talk with little action. The media coverage of this climate breakdown is also equally poor in that it gives terrifying pictures or random scary statistics, but does not provide individuals with any resources on what they can do to fix it. So I would like to take this opportunity to shed some light on the nature of this climate breakdown and share some ways you as an individual can reduce your carbon footprint and live in a more sustainable manner. 

Our Earth's climate has undergone many changes throughout time. The earth has experienced multiple glacial advances and retreats, including 7 cycles in the last 650,000 years. Our current climate is the result of the end of the most recent ice age approximately 7,000 years ago. So, given this information, you may be asking why this period of climate change is so significant if it is a natural occurrence? Why should I be concerned? From what scientists have gathered, periods of climate change in the past are due to small changes in the Earth's orbit that alter the amount of solar radiation our planet receives. However, this current period of climate change is not natural, rather, it is man-made. Human activity since the mid- 20th century is responsible for this climate breakdown, and not only is this alone unprecedented but so is the rate at which our earth is warming.

Changes over time in average precipitation and sea levels due to climate change,

So what does climate change actually mean and look like for our Earth? In order to understand the process of climate change, it is important to understand what the greenhouse effect is. In our atmosphere, there are various greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and ozone. When the sun's radiation reaches the earth's atmosphere, some radiation is absorbed by the land and bodies of water, which is what heats the Earth. That heat is then radiated from Earth into space, and some are trapped in our atmosphere by the greenhouse gases, which is how the planet maintains its temperature. However, animal agriculture, burning of fossil fuels, and other human activities have led to a significant increase in emissions of greenhouse gases and thus their presence in the atmosphere. The result is that more and more heat is being trapped and our Earth is getting warmer. As a result of this warming trend, we are able to observe shrinking ice sheets, glacial retreat, warming oceans, decreased snow cover, sea level rise, declining Arctic sea ice, ocean acidification, and an increase in extreme weather events.

But why are these things significant? Does it actually change anything or affect us? If there is no immediate action to combat the climate crisis, our global climate is projected to continue to change, and produce even more costly and significant damages as time progress (until the effects are completely irreversible, that is). By 2100 it is projected that sea levels will rise 1-4 feet. This effect alone has the potential to cause catastrophic damage to coastal habitats, including destructive flooding and erosion to soil contamination and loss of habitat for marine life. Higher sea levels are also responsible for more powerful hurricanes and typhoons which will result in stronger storm surges that can demolish communities. But rising sea levels are not the only things we will have to worry about... by the end of this century we can expect more droughts and heat waves, the Arctic to become completely ice-free, increased heavy precipitation, longer and more powerful wildfire seasons, increased air pollution, destruction of marine ecosystems, disruptions to our food supply, growing threats to our electricity supply, etc.

Currently, it is the poor and marginalized groups of people that are suffering the effects of climate change the most. Impoverished families and minorities are systematically pushed into less desirable neighborhoods and communities. As a result, they are the ones who are dealing with high asthma rates due to air pollution, they are the ones with unsanitary drinking water due to contamination, and they are the ones unable to recover after constant climate-related disasters. Yet, this is not acknowledged because it is not affecting those with power. But, that will change very quickly if our attitude towards the climate crisis does not shift.

A possible future scenario: New York City underwater due to the rise in sea levels

While this may seem like impending doom (I guess because it is), the really crazy thing is we actually know how to fix it (aka no one reading this has any excuse not to act)! There are many small and big switches you can make today that will help you live a more sustainable lifestyle and contribute to the reversal of this climate breakdown...and I am going to share a few:

1. Say NO to fast fashion! Thrift shop instead! Fast fashion is responsible for 5% of ALL greenhouse gas emissions! That is more than air travel! It also wastes a tremendous amount of water and is responsible for a great deal of chemical pollution. Buying and wearing used clothing is much more sustainable... (And fashion styles always repeat themselves, so what is in right now is probably already waiting for you in a thrift store).
2. GO Plant-Based! Animal agriculture is the single biggest supplier of greenhouse gases, at 18% of ALL emissions! Going vegan, vegetarian, or simply cutting out red meat is the single most significant thing a person can do to combat climate change. 
3. Use Clean Energy! Fossil fuels are the dominant source of energy and their environmental impacts are extremely dangerous. Not only does burning them and drilling release greenhouse gases, but large amounts of water are contaminated and wasted, the air is polluted, marine and terrestrial ecosystems are disrupted, etc...  Clean energy is the energy of the future! Wind power, solar power, geothermal energy, biomass for electricity, hydroelectric power, hydrokinetic energy are all a; alternative energy sources that require fewer resources and have a significantly smaller environmental impact. 
4. Ditch the PLASTIC! When exposed to light, plastics emit the greenhouse gases methane and ethylene the effects of which we know are very harmful. So, Going to the grocery store? Use reusable bags! (some stores will even give you a discount for doing so!) Packing snacks? Use reusable sacks! Buying a drink somewhere? Ask them to put it in your reusable bottle and drink it with your reusable straw! Eating lunch? How about you do it with your reusable utensils! Are you sick of me saying reusable yet? Good. 
5. Recycle or Ditch the PAPER! Trees, as we should all know, are our absolute best-friends as they absorb CO2 (a no good greenhouse gas)! Recycling paper means no trees are being used and they can continue to do their vital jobs, the process also requires 1/2 as much energy as paper production. If that hasn't sold you yet, the paper that ends up in landfills, which is 80% of all non-recycled paper, produces methane (this bad guy has no limits). When it comes to ditching or cutting down on paper there are many different alternatives. For example, picture this: you are going to the bathroom, need to make a #2, and when you finish, instead of using 1/4 of the entire roll of toilet paper (on a good day) you use your TUSHY!! (do yourself and the world a favor and click the link). 
6. Last, but not least... VOTE! Voting gives you the opportunity to elect individuals who you feel will best represent you and will stand for the issues you are passionate about! So make sure you are letting politicians know during local, state, congressional, and presidential elections that climate change is a core issue, by casting your ballot for candidates who recognize and accept the climate crisis and will push for legislation to combat it! 

Now you have the facts, and so I leave you with this- "There are risks and costs to action. But they are far less than the long-range risks of comfortable inaction." -JFK

Cow flatulence contributing to global warming

Catmint: The Natural Way To Go

I'll go crazy over anything with the word cat in it. I have a ton of cat memorabilia, ranging from pins to covers, to an actual cat. So I guess we can say I am obsessed. More obsessed than cats with catmint. When I first saw catmint in the MHS amphitheater, the purple leaves and fragrance tricked me into thinking it was lavender, and not a plant related to catnip.

Catmint 

Catmint, scientifically know as Nepeta mussinii, is apart of the mint family Labiatae, the same family that catnip is apart of. They are native to Asia, Europe, and Africa. It is a perennial plant, which comes back every year in a bigger size. They are varieties of catmint that are able to grow up to eight feet. They can bloom about anywhere during the fall and summer, as long as they have sun and water. They are able to survive through tough conditions like bad soil and harsh winters. Once rooted they are able to handle drought. They are fashionable plants; easy to pair with any other plant due to their soft colors and are a great source of nectar for many pollinators.

Cat Smelling Cat Nip 

There are many varieties of Catmint. There is Six Hills Grant, Little Titch, Blue Wonder, Japanese, Faassen, Persian, Walker's Low, and the most popular Catnip. Catnip, scientifically known as Nepeta cataria, is the most popular perennial herb of the family because of the effect it has on cats to go wild. Check out this video to see how cats react to catnip. Catnip is different from Catmint because it is not grown for an ornamental purpose, instead, it has a weedy appearance and their flowers are white. While catmint and other varieties may have an effect on cats, catnips have the most effective because of the high dose of nepetalactone, which triggers a euphoric response in cats. Cats are unable to feel the effects of the compound until they are at least six months old. After about thirty minutes of being exposed to catnip, cats build up a temporary resistance to the nepetalactone. Other than attracting cats, nepetalactone is used in humans to relax them, whether in tea or in a sedative.

Catnip and Catmint also attract other species like butterflies, hummingbirds, and bumblebees, which help your garden pollinate. They help maintain the diversity of our ecosystems where plants can provide protection and are the base for the food chain. Without pollinators, our ecosystem would suffer and our diets would be limited, where we would lack many of the nutrients we need to stay healthy. They are able to protect themselves and continue to promote the ecosystem by being a natural repellent to rabbits and deer. Instead of using toxic chemicals to keep animals away from your garden, all you have to do is plant Catmint. Toxic pesticides cause harm to everyone around it: the environment and humans. As we try to better our plant for the future, we need to put an end to the large supply of chemicals into our atmosphere and ground which leads to contaminating the water and then leads into a vicious cycle of death. We need to form a plan that will help fix what has been done already and improve it for the future. This plan would put Catmint to play as repellents of animals to promote pollinators for the better of the ecosystem.

Healthy Planet Slogan

The Dangers Of Entering A Pesticide Filled Feild

Why Snoozing Your Alarm is No Bueno

Everyone loves to sleep, and I think I speak for most people when I say that waking up in the morning is extremely difficult. But, being late for school might not be the worst consequence of hitting snooze on your alarm.

There is actually a term for the drifting in and out of sleep in the morning: drockling. Sleep scientists created the term in the 1970s, but it is rarely used today (let's bring it back!!!!!). There are five stages of the sleep cycle, the last of which is REM sleep.

 REM sleep usually occurs 90 minutes after falling asleep, and is when the human body is deepest in sleep. With the unusual sleep schedules of the hard working person, you could be waking up not long after REM sleep. This is bad!

The sleep cycle.

Serotonin and dopamine are neurotransmitters, chemical messengers that regulate functions in your body. Serotonin helps to regulate sleep and dopamine makes you feel pleasure and euphoria. In REM sleep, serotonin is released in your body. This is why your body relaxes and sleep is so satisfying. When your body starts to wake itself up, dopamine is released into your bloodstream. This makes you feel more awake when your alarm goes off. But, when you snooze your alarm you confuse the natural cycle of your body. The entire cycle restarts. Dopamine is present in your bloodstream, but now that you are back asleep serotonin is released again. These chemicals have conflicting effects, which results in you being more groggy when you eventually do wake up.

The signaling pathway of serotonin.

The other part of this to consider is that when you fall asleep after your alarm wakes you up, it is not a full, restful sleep. You are experiencing what is called fragmented sleep. Fragmented sleep is a sudden arousal out of sleep when you are deep in it. These aren't slight movements, rather you are woken up so much that you remember it later. Experiencing fragmented sleep can result in weight gain, mood problems, and extreme fatigue throughout the day.

Sleep is good for you, but only if it's good sleep. Consider this post your motivator to go to bed earlier and sleep better. If you do, you'll learn better, be more creative, stay focused, make decisions, and be more happy in general. 

So, while hitting the snooze button might bring some short term satisfaction and joy, you're much better off forcing yourself to get up right when you first hear the alarm go off. Trust me, you'll thank me later.

Allergies: Here today, gone tomorrow

Throughout my childhood up until high school, my mom would prepare a peanut butter and jelly sandwich for me for lunch everyday. If it wasn't peanut butter and jelly, I just simply would not eat it.

Peanut Butter and Jelly Sandwich 

Peanut butter and jelly sandwiches are a popular choice for children's lunch; however, for some children in America, this tasty snack could cause an itchy throat or even a trip to the hospital. Unlike me, my younger sister has a deathly food allergy to peanut butter and shellfish; while I was eating my PBn'J sandwich for lunch, she would be eating her favorite, Chef Boyardee ravioli (ew!). Due to food allergies there are children all over the world that have to avoid certain everyday foods such as milk, eggs, shellfish, and worst of all peanut butter! Food allergies are most common in children, but beware... they can develop at any age, so be more cautious next time you are preparing that PBn'J for lunch.

Allergy Meme

Why is it that we can enjoy our favorite food one day and suddenly develop a deathly allergy to it the next? You can thank your immune system for that one because although it is our bodies' way of defending us from harm, it can sometimes overreact by attacking harmless substances also known as allergens. Scientists believe immunoglobulin E was initially developed by the human body as protection from parasites but at times it can confuse certain foods for a pathogen. For instance, if someone is allergic to peanut butter and they consume it, it will send a signal to their immune system that will trigger the release of antibodies called immunoglobulin E (IgE). These immunoglobulin E antibodies travel from cell to cell in your body which causes a release of chemicals that permit an allergic reaction such as coughing or itchy skin. There are different types of Immunoglobulin E antibodies with individual "radars" for different allergens. Some people may be allergic to several kinds of foods, because they have multiple types of the the IgE antibodies, while other people may be allergic to just one food. Food allergies can manifest a wide range of symptoms such as swelling of the throat, hives, nausea and vomiting; symptoms may persist even after the resolution of the major allergy attack. Anaphylaxis is an extreme symptom that many people with nut allergies have, usually occurring within minutes or hours of contact with an allergen causing a contraction of the air ways and a drop in blood pressure and may cause death. 

Signs of Anaphylaxis

There are different factors that determine whether or not you will have a food allergy such as the degree of exposure to food, molecular characteristics of the allergen, and genetic predisposition of an individual. Often times if parents have some type of allergy, children are more likely to have them. If you are aware that you have a food allergy, at some point, you will probably be exposed to what you are allergic to, so it is important to be prepared whenever you are surrounded by food or in a foreign 
setting.

Food Allergies on the Rise 
It is always important to have good hygiene, right? Think again. Scientists have developed a few theories as to why allergies are becoming more and more common amongst children. The 'hygiene hypothesis' is the idea that a lack of exposure to infectious agents early in childhood can make it more likely for the immune system to mistake a food as a pathogen. This potentially links to the Western Society's obsession with fighting off germs, creating allergies for ourselves. Researchers are also observing what a pregnant mother eats during the different cycles of her trimester and how it affects the baby; they believe what a fetus is exposed to, while in utero, will have a big influence on its childhood. Further research into these ideas could explain why the prevalence of food allergies, from 1997 to 2011, has increased in children by 50%. 

This diagram shows the drastic increase overtime of food allergies that could lead to anaphylactic shock

Prevention of Anaphylaxis
The first line of treatment for anaphylaxis is Epinephrine (adrenaline), by reversing swelling in the airway and raising low blood pressure, it works to reverse the life-threatening symptoms. Doctors often prescribe Epinephrine to people with severe allergies in the form of an EpiPen and it is recommended for use as soon as you have eaten something you know you are allergic to or feel any symptoms of an allergic reaction. EpiPens are a quick solution to prevent anaphylactic shock and unlike other medications, such as antihistamines, it could save your life. 

Recently scientists have also been trying to prevent deathly food allergies by introducing children to the more common food allergens. By being introduced to potential allergens at earlier ages, children may develop protection from a severe food allergy since their immune system has been exposed to the allergen early on.

Epinephrine Auto-Injector

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Parasitic Plants

Plants make their own food, right? At least that’s what most of us have been told all our lives. Plants get the energy needed to survive from sugars that they make themselves through photosynthesis. A crucial element of this process is light, which provides the energy needed to synthesize sugars. Photosynthesizing plants are characteristically green, due to a pigment called chlorophyll. However, some plants grow and thrive without ever needing chlorophyll or light. These plants, commonly known as parasitic plants, feed off of other plants that they are attached to.

Image of the Cuscuta spp. vine latching onto a flower (link here)

Parasitic plants are usually more difficult to spot than photosynthesizing plants. Their color varies widely, from purple to yellow to bright red. Without the need for light, some species grow mainly underground. Others completely cover the victim plant, cutting off the victim’s sunlight and making it more vulnerable to the parasitic plant.

The dodder vine, a stem parasite, covers the plant it is attacking and suckers onto it, draining the plant before moving onto the next host. The vine does this with a haustorium, a unique organ that creates a vascular link between the two plants. The haustorium is a highly modified root or stem of the parasite.

A yellow dodder vine taking over a desert bush (image link here)

The dodder vine seen above is cutting off the host plant's light. Using the haustoriums, the dodder vine will take nutrients and water from the plant until the vine dies. The seeds left by the parasitic vine will then make use of new host plants.

These plants can be harmful to crops and agricultural farms. Different types of parasitic plants destroy cereal crops, legumes, corn, and many other broadleaf crops.

Stalk of a Cistanche tubulosa (desert hyacinth) popping up (image credit here)

These plants have an amazing advantage in their ecosystems. They do not need to produce their own food through photosynthesis, which takes a lot of time and energy, as they leech what they need from other plants. Other plants that are doing the work of photosynthesis are losing their hard work to these parasites. They have evolved to do as little work as possible, and that works for them.

Parasites are difficult to get rid of because many of them are underground, but researchers are developing new ways of fighting them, such as interfering with the ability of the parasites to bind to a host. These vampire-like plants pose an interesting challenge to the field of agricultural research.

Vitamin C: Wack or Fact?

Growing up in a close family, whenever anyone would get sick; everyone would get sick. My beautiful mother's solution to this predicament would be to force us to take vitamin C, claiming that it prevents people from getting sick and keeps them happy and smiling. This was a big claim and when my siblings and I were young, it would work like a charm. However, as they began to go to college and major in scientific fields, the claim of the affects of Vitamin C, was no longer believable. I was on the fence about who to believe so I wanted to do some in depth research. How does Vitamin C prevent you from getting sick? Can it actually do anything at all?

First thing first, what is Vitamin C? Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is a vitamin that is involved in the repair of tissue and in the formation of cartilage, muscles, and collagen in bones. We need it for the protection against free radicals and helps your body absorb iron. There are a lot of food that naturally contain vitamin C which is good because everyone needs it! These foods include all citrus, berries, and potatoes! The daily recommended dosage is 90mg for men and 75mg for women. But be careful! If you take too much vitamin C it can cause diarrhea, vomiting, and nausea. However, vitamin C deficiency can lead to scurvy which is a severe vitamin c deficiency. So watch out!

Alright, with that being said, the first thing I thought to do to research the issue was a quick google search: "Can Vitamin C prevent colds?". Immediately, WebMd came to the rescue and said, matter of factly: no, of course not. This was a bit discouraging, because the Vitamin C misconception had caused many fights in the Edgington household, and I felt silly for not knowing that it could be solved with one simple google search. As I continued my search, there were many sources that supported the original claim of WebMd until I finally found something else. There was an article entitled Vitamin C and Immune Function and it did confirm the consensus of the other articles by saying that, for people without a Vitamin C deficiency, the supplement would do little to nothing. However, people with Vitamin C deficiencies have a very hard time fighting off colds and their colds are often much more severe. The article went on to say that, phagocytes and t-cells use vitamin C to enhance their resistance capabilities and without Vitamin C they are performing to their full capabilities. This article cleared up so much for me! I finally understood the method behind the madness that is my mother! I knew that there had to be some type of scientific reasoning because she has a background in science and even has her PhD in biochemistry. Now I will finally have an actual to present to my family the next time anyone gets sick!

This new weight loss secret will make your apiarist hate you!

Varroa destructor(ew)

What's a Varroa mite's favorite blood type to drink? Bee-positive! Varroa destructor (public bee enemy #1) are red-brown external parasites of honey bees. These super tiny bugs feed mostly on larvae and pupae. Previously, they were thought to suck the "blood" of bees, known as hemolymph. Scientists believe that these vampires are what cause the malformation and weakening of honey bees along with the transmission of viruses. 

Recently though, experiments with fake bee larvae have revealed that our favorite little bloodsucking vampires might actually be flesh-eating werewolves. 

Entomologist Samuel Ramsey conducted a year-long experiment developing artificial bee larvae that let him test how well mites survived when fed different amounts of fat from an organ called the "bee fat body" versus hemolymph. Mites lived for an average of 1.8 days on pure hemolymph. The few mites able to survive the entire seven-day tests ate 50 percent to 100 percent fat. 

Artificial Bee Larvae

Other experiments also provide evidence for Ramsey's werewolf parasites. Feeding adult bees two stains- a red stain for bee fat and a yellow stain for hemolymph (bee blood)- also shows that mites are targeting adult fats. Microscopic images of the mites’ multipart guts taken after feeding glowed red, the researchers found. When the parasites fed on bees with only their hemolymph stained, the mite guts looked dim.

GUT GLOW Microscope images revealed that mites that fed on bees with only their hemolymph stained had ghostly dim guts (left), similar to starved mites used as a control (middle). But mites that fed on fat-stained bees had glowing guts full of red fat (right).

Paying attention to fat lets us in on how mites damage bees. The bee fat body detoxifies pesticides and helps in the development of the unusually long-lived generation needed to survive winter. Mites eating the organ may reduce bees’ immune response, worsening damage from the viruses they spread. These symptoms of flesh-eating mites match up very closely with what scientists believe happens with bloodsucking mites. 

Microscopic view of  a Varroa destructor (shown in pink) wedged under a bee’s protective plate

Along with his evidence supporting the idea of fat eating Varroa mites, Ramsey believes that there is evidence against the blood drinking kind. Looking at Varroa anatomy, you can see that they don’t have the more flexible body that can swell with a lot of incoming fluid or a gut specialized for elaborate liquid filtering that many other bloodsuckers do. And according to Ramsey, insect hemolymph is a weak, watery choice for exclusive nutrition. 

Although the evidence for the idea of werewolf mites is growing, so are the questions. Some scientists still believe that the tiny little parasites hurting honey bees are vampires. Other scientists have yet to decide between Team Edward and Team Jacob. And the honeybees... probably don't care about what type of parasite it is. But hopefully, this discussion on what's hurting the honeybees will lead us to find out ways to help them. 

                                                                                                                                         -C.J George

Celiac Life

In late July of 2011, I was diagnosed with Celiac disease.  I was 9 years old, and I felt like my world was coming to an end.  No, not because Celiac disease is some kind of terminal illness, or some excruciating disease that would require millions of dollars in medical procedures.  It meant that I would never be able to eat gluten again.  No more bread for my sandwiches, no more pancakes or waffles for breakfast, hardly even any cereal!  No more pizza or pasta, no cake or cookies, not to mention all of the wonderful glutenous foods that I had never tried and would never be able to even taste.

Gluten free symbol

What really is Celiac disease?

Celiac disease is an autoimmune genetic disease that renders the villi, the cells and structures that absorb nutrients from the small intestine, unable to take in any nutrients.  This happens because when someone with Celiac disease consumes gluten, a protein that is commonly found in wheat, barley, and rye, their body produces an immune reaction to the small intestine that damages the villi.

Image of vili in small intestine in person with and without Celiac Disease

The immediate causes for this are presently still unknown. However, Celiac disease does have a genetic connection.  For example, in my immediate family I have it, and so do my brother and my mother, so my mother passed on the gene for it to both of us.  If one has certain variants of HLA-DQA1 or HLA-DQB1, one is more predisposed to the condition.  Despite being a genetic disease, someone with the previously mentioned variations may not experience it until later in their life.  Often one will begin experiencing symptoms of Celiac disease after a stress to the body such as surgery or pregnancy, though they can begin as an infant. 

What are some symptoms of Celiac disease?

There are dozens upon dozens of symptoms for Celiac disease, and everyone experiences different symptoms.  One may not even experience any symptoms that seem related to digestion at all.  Some symptoms in adults are - fatigue, bone or joint pain, osteoporosis or osteopenia, seizures and migraines.  Children are more likely to have digestion related symptoms, some being - abdominal pain or bloating, diarrhea, vomiting, delayed growth and puberty, short stature, irritability and ADHD.

With such a variety of symptoms that are different for everyone, it seems hard to figure out whether a person has Celiac disease, or something completely unrelated.  Actually it is very easy to test for Celiac disease, there are a few simple screenings or tests one could take to determine whether they have it or not.  One is a blood test screening, which is available for anyone over 3 years old.  For this, one is injected with tissue transglutaminase IgA antibody as well as the IgA antibody to help the test run smoothly.  In 98% of patients who have Celiac disease the test will come out positive, though there is a chance of a false positive in patients with certain other conditions.  This test come out negative in 95% of patients who do not have Celiac disease.  For further testing, one can take and IgA Endomysial Antibody test, which has a specificity if 100% but is not as sensitive, and 5-10% of people with Celiac Disease do not have a positive test from this, and it also requires primate esophagus or human umbilical cord, so it is reserved only for very hard to diagnose patients.  One can also take a total serum IgA test, which gets for an IgA deficiency, something that is common in people with Celiac Disease, if one has an IgA deficiency, one can take a Deaminated Gleason Peptide test.  Another, and more practical test one can take an endoscopy, which is what I took.  An endoscopy is a test in which a very small camera is inserted into your small intestines to see if the villi are healthy, they also take a small piece to do a biopsy on, to further confirm whether you have Celiac Disease.

What happens if you are diagnosed with Celiac Disease?

While being diagnosed with Celiac Disease is not the end of the world, it certainly may feel like it.  No more pizza or bagels, no cookies or cakes, no bread or any other bread products, and not to mention all those food that seem perfectly fine but secretly have gluten in them... With all those foods that you can no longer eat, it seems like there is very little that you can eat.  Fortunately there are now many different brands that offer a variety of gluten free foods that don't taste half bad.  There are a few different bread brands, a couple cracker brands, a variety of cookies, baking mixes, and flours.  Now there are even some restaurants that offer gluten free food, and label it as such, what an exciting prospect!  

Gluten free aisle in a store

So while your new life may feel very strange at first, it's really not as big of a difference as you fear.  In my eight years of being gluten free, I have seen the number of products practically double, and while I do miss being able to walk into a restaurant and ordering whatever I want without having to think twice about what the ingredients might be, there is enough variety and actual good tasting gluten free food, that it no longer feels like such a burden to my life.

-Hannah R.

Humans and Dogs: A History

People have a special connection with dogs. More households have a dog than any other kind of pet, and they have had a significant place in culture going back thousands of years. Even the cat-crazy ancient Egyptians kept pet dogs. However, where does this connection originate from?

My own dog

To fully answer this question we have to understand where dogs came from. Genetic analysis shows that dogs likely diverged from wolves at least 27,000 years ago. It seems likely that modern dogs originate from wolves that cooperated with humans. In the time since, they have undergone several changes that likely lead to the special connection we have with them.

Though they may be cuter, in my experience, chihuahuas are just as vicious(Images from here and here, respectively).

In the time since they have diverged from wolves, us humans have bred them into breeds with certain characteristics. While they are not separate species and are capable of interbreeding, the breeds we have created are very distinct with their own traits that separate them from each other. However, in our creation of these breeds, the selective breeding they have undergone has led to the introduction of some negative traits. The inbreeding that purebred dogs go through has led to a higher rate of genetic disease, particularly cancer relative to crossbred dogs. In addition, some of the traits we have bred into them are harmful. Most notably, the bulldog was bred for its distinctive short face, but this has actually led to an increased mortality rate.

Perhaps the most obvious reason for our relationship with dogs is their ability to understand us. Research has shown that dogs do have the ability to understand some human visual communication. However, even without that research, any dog owner could tell you that their dog absolutely can pick up on their body language. Speaking purely from my own personal experience, I know that my dog not only can pick up on my mood, but reacts to it, showing sympathy and excitement when appropriate. In addition, people read, correctly or not, certain emotions in dog communication.

In addition to this, people and dogs are sort of hardwired to like each other. When a person interacts with a dog, levels of certain hormones are elevated or lowered. In particular, touching a dog results in elevated levels of oxytocin and lowered levels of cortisol. Oxytocin is a hormone that affects, among other things, social bonding, and particularly is associated with maternal feelings following childbirth, and cortisol is a hormone associated with the stress response. What's more, it has been shown that the release of oxytocin can cause a positive feedback loop leading to additional oxytocin release in both human and dog. This is consistent with what people actually experience with their dogs. People definitely do have an affection for dogs that is similar to that they might have with children, and interacting with my dog does help to destress after a tough day. 

The relationship between dogs and humans is totally unique. Unlike most other domesticated animals, with the possible exception of cats, people don't typically expect any benefit from having a dog, while other domesticated animals, like cows or horses are typically raised for their capabilities or products. This sort of totally non-beneficial relationship is an interesting result of tens of thousands of years of evolution that have led to the bizarre, wonderful relationship the human race has with our beloved canine companions.

An Emerging Form of Warfare

This generation remembers listening to the news in the back of our parents’ cars, hearing about various horrors that we never were able to wrap our heads around--threats of nuclear war, international terrorism, and the like. I remember myself, a highly pretentious seventh grader, listening to these stories and imagining huge missiles being developed across the ocean. But in fact, I never thought about the other weapons that terrorism could include. From learning about international conflict from the radio and history class throughout my life, I was extremely drawn to this topic when I first learned about bioterrorism in an article published in my mother’s college alumni magazine.

A familiar name among AP Bio students, smallpox was once known as the world’s most deadly disease, but after a 12-year eradication effort, the virus was eradicated in 1979, and now only exists in laboratories. While it was active, however, the disease could spread like wildfire, through sneezes, coughs, contaminated bedding and clothing, open wounds, or occasionally skin-to-skin contact. The symptoms manifest after a short period, presenting as a high fever, body aches, and vomiting, before escalating into red spots and a rash with pustules filled with the virus. Many people died from the disease--more 300 million in the 20th century alone.

The Smallpox Virus--Variola

To stop the spread of the disease, extreme measures always had to be taken. Each victim can be expected to pass the virus to everyone else with whom they have been in contact with, so every person exposed has to be vaccinated immediately. After the eradication efforts, routine vaccination for smallpox stopped because the efforts had been so widely successful. Even though this means that most people have lost immunity, there now exist only two labs in the entire world where the smallpox virus is approved to be held--one in the United States, and one in Russia.

However, the location of one of the laboratories has come to be a reason for concern among scientific communities. Until recently, biological weapons were seen as unlikely agents of destruction, mostly because countries previously believed there was a moral line that would be crossed by using them. But it has become known that Russia has continued development of its bioweapons program, even after signing an agreement to put an end to it. It has been speculated that they have been able to create certain weapons infected with smallpox and other viruses, with the intent of causing harm internationally. Some of these weapons are on the scale of ballistic missiles, which can travel between continents. A delivery of smallpox to the United States would be a national emergency as people have not been vaccinated since its eradication, and any form of mutation could have taken place in the virus. As many as 10 other countries are also seeking ways to develop biological weapons.

     But why biological weaponry? Well, these unconventional weapons can be built in mundane situations and operate very discreetly (in aerosol spray form, among others). The workshop can be disinfected and people would only become ill a few weeks after an attack, but the pathogens can kill large amounts of people within a small amount of time and the weapons can cause widespread hysteria even faster than the death toll can rise.

     What this means for us, however, is unclear. Scientists are preparing to deal with possible threats of endemic, learning from the history of outbreaks such as the ancient Egyptian smallpox outbreak, the European plague, and Philadelphia’s yellow fever epidemic in the 1700s, but it is too soon to tell what the future will bring. The world is rapidly changing as new technologies emerge (think CRISPR and other genomic modification tools) and as parts of Earth are being explored for the first time. This makes room for plenty of man-made mutant pathogens created in labs, eradicated pathogens, and newly discovered pathogens from newly explored areas of the world to be brought into civilization for the first time or for the third.

Evidence of a Smallpox Outbreak in Ancient Egypt from a Mummified Human

Unfortunately, there have not been any official efforts in the US to prepare for an attack of bioterrorism. Online searches looking for information on what the US has done in the past years to prepare did not hinder any information, only showing webpages which give information on what individuals should do in the event of this emergency, for example, read here.

It is clear that a new age of warfare is emerging, and it could be even deadlier than the nuclear weapons we have feared for most of our lives. 

Houseplants and Their Effect on Your Life

The Benefits of Having Houseplants

After filling my bedroom with at least fourteen plants, and giving them names, it is safe to say that I have an obsession. It's no secret that houseplants are beautiful to look at. However, I, as well as many others, did not recognize the countless benefits of having indoor plants. In fact, studies have proven that the presence of plants in one's environment has a positive effect on their mental health. Houseplants can not only improve one's mood, but they can also purify the air inside a home, especially if they have a relatively large surface area. These effects are most prevalent where there is a variety of different species of plants, as different species have different effects on their surroundings. My personal favorites are succulents and palms.

Money Tree (Jennifer) Pachira Aquatica

Most plants release carbon dioxide at night, when they stop photosynthesis and only perform cellular respiration. Succulents such as cacti are special because they release oxygen all the time. The constant release of oxygen, even during the night, can improve sleep quality, as the person sleeping can breathe easier. CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism) plants are very important because they are the best air purifiers. These plants include orchids, succulents, cacti, and pineapples, which have adapted to their hot and dry environments, allowing them to close their stomata during the day, prohibiting water evaporation. Then, at night, they improve air quality by performing cellular respiration and finally opening their stomata, which can improve sleep quality, as well. 

In addition to this, certain species of palm trees, such as areca palms, can help raise the humidity levels in the air. Areca palms are the most efficient air humidifiers. This can be convenient during the winter, as (through transpiration) the palms release water through their stomata, which is then released into the air, making it less dry. These are just a few examples of plants that can improve your life. Here are many more:

Areca Palm Tree (Yolanda) Dypsis Lutescens 

 Do you ever clean your house and then are bothered by the idea of the lingering chemicals in the air? If you have aloe vera plants, bamboo, or money trees, this doesn't have to be a problem! Plants such as aloe, bamboo, money trees, and nerve plants can absorb formaldehyde and benzene in the air, which are found in many cleaners and paints.

Avocado (Kara) Persea Americana  

Aloe vera plants are also easy to take care of, as they need minimal water, so you can forget about them for a couple of days and they will still be okay. These plants also have health benefits when applied to a cut or sunburn, as well as consumed in drinks, although they taste extremely bitter and absolutely horrible. When aloe vera is applied to the hair, it can condition and (using proteolytic enzymes) repair damage on the scalp, reducing itchiness and dandruff.

Growing up, my mother always told me that having a money tree in the house brings good luck and wealth in the future. I'm not sure about this, however, I love this plant because it is safe for cats. Both of my cats love chomping on all of my houseplants, which eventually makes them sick a couple hours later. However, money plants are nontoxic, which is perfect because that is their favorite plant to eat. This plant is also very beautiful, especially when the stems are braided together. Also, just like aloe vera, it purifies the air by absorbing formaldehyde and benzene.

Ever since I filled my room with plants, I have been sleeping better. In addition to the physical benefits these plants cause, I have noticed that the responsibility of taking care of these plants has a drastic effect on my mood.

Haworthia (Selena) H. Attenuata      

 Bamboo (Jhene) Bambusoideae