Art by Malte Mueller |
Montclair High School Bio Blog
A window into the world of biology in the leafy suburb of Montclair, NJ. Written by students save for a few bio teacher posts.
Sunday, June 11, 2023
The Science Behind Sadness: Unraveling the Mysteries of the Human Emotion
The Human Microbiome: A look into our microscopic world
Did you know the number of microorganisms in the human body is in the trillions, outnumbering our own cells by a ratio of at least 10 to 1, or that the estimated weight of microorganisms in the human body is 2 to 6 pounds or nearly the same as the weight of the brain? Well if you're like me you had no idea how significant and essential the human microbiome is to our lives, many operations throughout our body that keep us alive can not occur without the help of the human microbiome, let's dive deeper into this small and exciting world to learn the wonders of the human microbiome and their essential roles in digestion, immunity, and overall health!
The Human Microbiome |
What is the Human Microbiome?
Composition of the Human Microbiome
Bacteria
Bacteria under microscope |
Viruses
COVID-19 Virus up close |
Fungus
C. albicans italicize |
Roles of the Human Microbiome
Digestion
Drawing of the gut microbiome In the human body, digestion is greatly influenced by the microbiome, especially the gut microbiome. Complex carbohydrates, such as dietary fiber, are broken down into smaller, more digestible molecules by the billions of microbes that live in the gut. The breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids is accelerated by these microorganisms because they create enzymes that humans lack. The gut microbiome ferments indigestible substances into useful byproducts like short-chain fatty acids, which fuel the cells lining the colon and promote colon health as a whole. Additionally, the microbiome assists in the synthesis of necessary vitamins and nutrients that the human body cannot generate, such as vitamin K and several types of B vitamins. The microbiome works with the immune system to maintain a balanced and healthy gut environment, reinforces the gut barrier to keep infections out, and helps the body detoxify toxic substances. Immune system and immunityIn the human body, immunity is greatly influenced by the microbiome. The trillions of microorganisms that live inside and on top of our bodies have a strong relationship with the immune system, influencing how it develops, works, and reacts. The microbiome serves as an instructor, teaching the immune system to identify pathogens and react correctly while retaining tolerance to safe chemicals. This interaction lowers the risk of allergies, autoimmune illnesses, and other immune-related diseases by ensuring that immune cells mature properly and that immune tolerance is established. By fighting for resources and space, the microbiome also serves as a barrier against infections, driving them out and preventing their colonization. Additionally, the microbiome affects the generation and distribution of regulatory and T cells, two types of immune cells that help regulate immune responses. How to keep your microbiome healthyNow that you know what the human microbiome is and why it is so important for the well-being of all humans here as some great tips and tricks to keep your microbiome healthy and operating at peak performance! Fix your dietManage your physical healthExercise frequently since it has been demonstrated to have a good impact on the microbiome's makeup. Exercise increases intestinal motility, which helps with waste removal and fosters microbial variety. To stay hydrated and support healthy digestion and microbial function, drink plenty of water. Water aids in the movement of nutrients, the elimination of waste, and the maintenance of the microbiome's healthy habitat. The general health of the microbiome is influenced by maintaining a healthy lifestyle, which includes regular sleep schedules, abstaining from tobacco use, and limiting alcohol intake. |
Friday, June 9, 2023
Are You Smarter Than a Slime Mold?
Have you ever found yourself sitting on a subway train in New York City marveling at the subway system's astonishing efficiency? You ask yourself, "Who came up with all of this? This must have taken them forever!" With just a quick Google search, your curious thoughts would be proven true, as it did in fact take engineers years to create the subway system that shuttles millions of people around New York City today. While, yes, this is an impressive feat by engineers, what if you were told that a unicellular organism could map out the same route in just a small fraction of the time it took humans? Well, the species of slime mold, Physarum polycephalum , can do just that, and it's absolutely marvelous!
The Experiment
Through countless explorations of different ecosystems, scientists began to notice just how good this species of mold was at navigating through its environment to the nearest food source in the most efficient way possible. In an effort to investigate just how capable this slime mold was, Japanese scientists proposed an experiment. The slime mold was placed in the middle of an agar plate with oats placed throughout, arranged in the pattern of Japanese cities around Tokyo.
When presented with this scenario, the slime mold slowly began to create the most efficient route to each of its nutrient sources. When scientists took a closer look at what exactly the mold had done, they noticed the mold's route looked awfully similar to the current Japanese subway system route. When they compared the two, the scientists found the routes to be almost identical! Fascinating, right!? But how exactly was this unicellular organism able to carry out such a complex function?
While the mere fact that this unicellular organism is able to carry out this function is quite impressive, once you begin to understand what exactly the mold is doing on a molecular level, the feat becomes even more remarkable.
Slime Mold: What is it?
How Does It Move?
Where Can I Find It?
Dangers of Declawing: Spare Your Feline Friend
Whether used for personality quizzes or classroom discourse one of the most significant questions throughout childhood and possibly lifelong: who is better cats or dogs?
For me, it always has been (and will be) cats. Now, I am not here to argue who's better (cats of course!) as I do have three cats (Floofy, Squeaky, and Hank) and one dog (Bird) - not to mention 20 chickens. You also can't forget about two previous cats of mine that have also been family pets: Jersey and Spotty.
At my elementary school, we had something called morning care and after care. These programs were for kids to either arrive to school earlier or stay a bit later after school to make it easier for parents to pick up and drop of their kids. One of the counselors had a roommate whose cat gave birth to 12 kittens over the span of a couple weeks. So, naturally having a cat enthusiast family, my parents and I chose to adopt one of the kittens. After going through a series of names, we decided on the extremely creative name: Floofy.
The cat in question |
In our living room we have two leather chairs that my mom was quite fond of. Unfortunately for those chairs, Floofy was an athletic kitten who would jump up and down and run all over the place. In an attempt to save the chairs my mom asked that Floofy be declawed. Unfortunately, we were not aware of the horrors that declawing could do to a cat and the vet removed her front claws. Obviously, looking back this was not a smart decision and ultimately did not save the chairs that my mom so loved. So why was this act of declawing Floofy so inhumane?
Well, firstly, we have to ask the question: why do people declaw their cats? There are various reasons as to why people choose to declaw their cats. Some owners are concerned about their furniture, or the possibility of getting scratched, or they have always had declawed cats, or they want to "level the playing field" between their cats. While these might be completely valid reasons, there are easier, cheaper, and less destructive methods to solving the listed problems.
So, I have mentioned the term declawing multiple times but what does it actually entail? Declawing is the removal of each front toe at the first joint. In order to not cause readers to faint I won't go into too much detail about how the toe is removed - just know that the cat is put under anesthesia and the area is sanitized in order to remove the claw and bone portion.
Diagram showing before vs after a declawing procedure |
Each veterinarian differs in the method they use. Some use scalpels whereas others use heavy-duty nail clippers. In order to prevent substantial bleeding afterwards it is recommended that the wound is sutured or closed with surgical glue. If you still are not following on why this removes important parts of a cat, I will provide you with the human equivalent pictured below. Imagine all of your fingertips removed at the first knuckle. This is what it would look like:
Featuring my hand (I could be a hand model don't you think?) |
So, why is removing this claw and bone portion so detrimental? Well, firstly we have to cover what having claws allows a cat to do. Claws allow cats to scratch which creates the ability to scent and mark territory, and they allow cats to kneed which is a way of showing pleasure. Cats are typically able to climb to high places which creates vantage points and a safer environment, and without claws, cats can no longer have a full body stretch. Additionally, there are potential complications of declawing a cat. Let's go through them.
Complications after surgery: Some cats have claw regrowth or abscesses.
Pain: Just like humans, it is assumed that cats are able to feel phantom pain - pain in limbs that no longer exist. And since there are usually 10 amputations (20 if you include the hind legs), there is a likely chance that there will be phantom pains. Even if your cat seems "fine" there are ways to suffer in silence just like some humans do too.
Stiff joints / Arthritis: The joints essentially become stiff and "frozen" as the tendons that previously controlled the joints retract. But my cat makes scratching motions so they wouldn't miss their claws then, right? Well it is more realistic to assume that those cats are trying to stretch their stiff body parts and unfortunately, not succeeding. These body parts are so stiff that the toes joints are not able to be moved, even if the cat is under anesthetics.
Problems using the litter box: After going through surgery, some cats especially older ones tend to use anything but what they are actually supposed to use. So, if you like cleaning up cat urine and spending extra money to remove the pee, then declawing is for you. Personally, I would rather take a few scratches to my couch than having it peed on.
Biting: As claws are a primary defense mechanism for cats, when they are removed cats tend to shift towards biting as a defense mechanism.
Personality changes: As a result of no longer being able to stretch fully, removal of primary defense mechanisms, arthritis and joint stiffness and pain, many cats exhibit changes in behaviors.
Neglect / death: Due to all of the above symptoms, many owners no longer see their cats as desirable. Unfortunately, this results in neglect whether trapped in certain rooms, dropped off at shelters, or abandoned. Forcing a declawed cat into the wild is usually a death sentence as cats are not able to defend themselves from other wildlife (cats, dogs, predators, etc.) or natural disasters. Tragically, many declawed cats are seen as desirable to serve as live bait for fighting dogs or be sold to function as animal testers.
Are there other more humane options to remove a cats claws? Unfortunately, there are not. While tendonectomies are an alternative, they still result in constant nait trimmings to decrease risk of injury and often do result in a declawing. But then why do some veterinarians recommend declawing? Well, they are actually in violation of American Veterinary Medical Association policy. And if you are one susceptible to peer pressure, just think that 25 countries consider declawing inhumane and made it illegal to perform those procedures.
So what can a person do to prevent their cat scratching them or the furniture? Provide your cat with places they can scratch. Personally, I recommend having multiple cat scratchers throughout your home as they will usually utilize those instead of furniture. Scratching posts should be tall enough that your cat can get a full enough stretch. It is not necessary to provide cats with full size cat trees (while it is nice for the cats) but it is necessary to provide spots where your cat can scratch. Also to prevent getting scratched yourself, try to read into your cat's behavior. If they seem avoidant and resistant to contact, do not pursue and ignore their wishes. If you ignore their boundaries, they might lash out and attack.
I hope that reading this post has either changed your mind about declawing cats or at least made you a bit more knowledgeable on the topic. I hope that looking forward you will make the best decision for your cat and keep in mind the negative effects of declawing.
Thursday, June 8, 2023
The Science Behind Why We Get Deja Vu: Is there Something Wrong With my Brain?
The Scientific Miracle of IVF!
Why You Might Actually Want to be a Ginger
Have you ever made fun of a redhead, a.k.a. a ginger, before? Insulted them because they were different? Because of their unique hair color that you were jealous you could never have? Don't even try to lie and say that you never have because, as a ginger myself, I often fall victim to these insults, especially from many of you reading this post right now.
A redhead (ginger)! |
Anyways...that's enough about myths! Back to what I was saying! What many of you blondes and brunettes fail to realize is that the roles should be reversed, meaning I, along with all other gingers, should actually be the one insulting you. Now, you may be wondering what a person with red hair, supposedly the worst and most embarrassing hair color in your eyes, could possibly have to say about your amazing blonde/brown hair. Well, that is exactly what I am going to talk about today, and it has a little something to do with pain tolerance...
What Exactly is Pain Tolerance?
Before I dive deep into what exactly makes gingers better than both brunettes and blondes, you must first understand what pain tolerance is and its effect on everyone's day to day lives. Pain tolerance is the maximum amount of pain that a person can bear and/or tolerate, and it differs from person to person. This specificity of each person is due to many factors, including genes, age, gender, and if you haven't already guessed it, hair color!
This is the part where I am finally going to tell you why gingers, myself included, are better...we have a higher pain tolerance than most! Basically what this means is that we are the best. I'm obviously just kidding...or am I? Anyways, what this actually means is that we can withstand a higher amount of pain than everyone else. For example, have you ever lifted a hot bowl out of the microwave, almost dropping it at one point because of how hot it was? This, right here, is a perfect example of pain tolerance. Those who have a higher pain tolerance, such as myself, are able to carry that hot bowl much longer without almost dropping it, than those with a lower pain tolerance, such as all you brunettes and blondes out there.
A system used to measure your pain tolerance |
Let's Go More In Depth - Why do Gingers Have a Higher Pain Tolerance?
Now that you understand pain tolerance in a basic sense, let us dive deeper into why gingers, in particular, have a much higher pain tolerance than most. I'll give you a hint, it all has to do with genetics!
Within the pigment-producing skin cells of all humans, known as melanocytes, are melanocortin 1 receptors, receptors that determine how much pheomelanin and dark coloration the body can produce (they basically determine how tan you can get). Gingers, seeing as we never get tan, lack properly functioning melanocortin I receptors. This, although extremely sad, is actually beneficial to us, in that having non-functional (tan-determining) receptors is actually one of the main reasons why we have such a high pain tolerance, something all you blondes and brunettes wouldn't understand.
To go more in depth, having non-functional melanocortin I receptors leads to a reduction in the amount of POMC, a protein that stimulates the release of specific hormones (melanocyte stimulating hormones and beta-endorphins) into the body, being produced. With less POMC being produced, less of those hormones are released, bringing about an unbalance between the pain-inhibiting and pain-enhancing receptors within the body that control a person's pain tolerance. Although reading the word "unbalance" may sound worrisome, in actuality this "unbalance" allows for the increased activation of opioid receptors involved in preventing pain; ultimately, raising our pain tolerance and making us the best!
A closer look at melanocytes! |
So there you have it! Now you know why people with red hair (gingers), including myself obviously, are better than all those who have either blonde or brown hair.
How Does This High Pain Tolerance Affect Other Aspects of Life?
After reading about a high pain tolerance and why exactly gingers have it, you are probably wondering just how beneficial it can actually be. Well, for one, it makes us superior over everyone else! More importantly though, having a high pain tolerance means that gingers often require lower doses of certain medications, one of which being morphine, as well as other opioids.
A type of opioid - morphine |
I know you're probably tired of reading about why gingers are the best, but this is the last section, I promise! From studying the high pain tolerance of gingers, and why exactly they have it, scientists are hopeful that they will soon be able to use that information to create many new medications to treat pain.
Although studies are still ongoing, scientists hope to create these new medications by manipulating all the signals, receptors, etc. that play a part in determining a person's pain tolerance.
I hope that after reading this blog, you have come to realize two very important things: one, the insults and myths need to stop; and two, gingers are the best (because of our high pain tolerance, of course)!