Leaves of three? Let it be!

Part 1: First Exposure and the facts
I have a distinct memory of summer 2012. I was riding my bike around the beautiful island of Martha's Vineyard when I pedaled up to a house with dozens of goats just hanging out and munching in the yard. I saw the lady who lived there. "Why do you have so many goats?" I asked. 

GOATS!

She responded, "They're here to eat all of the poison ivy off my lawn." Okay, well that was not the answer I was expecting, but it fascinated me nonetheless. The goats could eat poison ivy? Why would they choose that when there are hundreds of other plants and weeds around? Jon McConaughy, co-owner of Double Brook Farm and Brick Farm Market and Tavern says, "In the case of an animal that needs to eat anyway and is being raised for other purposes, then if we can achieve two things at the same time, and save on diesel fuel and save on the impact on the environment, then it works quite well." He explains that poison ivy is invasive, and the animals enjoy eating it so two birds are killed with one stone. When most think of invasive plants, they think they're coming from somewhere else. Poison ivy, however, is native to the US. There are two types of poison ivy, climbing (Toxicodendron radicans) and non-climbing (Toxicodendron rydbergii). They crossbreed frequently, so there are many different variations of the plant.  Some poison ivy plants also have berries, that birds (especially songbirds) love to eat. 

Meme

Part 2: The first-hand experience
The next summer, I woke up one morning with a red, blistering rash all around my lips and nose. I couldn't breathe. It was due to Toxicodendron radicans, or what is commonly known as poison ivy.  I could not breathe, and I went on steroids to help with the pain. If you've ever been on steroids, you would know they don't always make you feel the best. I had it pretty bad, I even passed out in a Thai restaurant while I was attempting to enjoy some curry. It was the worst.

Part 3: A misidentified hero?

But was it the worst? Now I'm not so sure. On Friday, May 25, Ms. Eckert took us to the Sandy Hook Beach through the New Jersey Sea Grant Consortium. The women guiding our day mentioned that poison ivy helps keep the beach together. I was just a bit angry because.... what about my face?  What about all the hard work the goats did to un-invade the nice woman's yard? Was it all for nothing? Is poison ivy foe like I had learned to believe? Or is it friend?

Friend or Foe?

Poison ivy makes up 70% of the plants on the beach at Sandy Hook. The more hot and humid the summer is, the more poison ivy there is to look out for, and climate change is a big help in extending the number of poisonous plants. The rise in CO2 in the atmosphere positively correlates with the growth of poison ivy. 

The extensive root system of the plant traps sand blown by the wind, and it allows other plants in the area to grow (this makes it really hard to remove). It also helps to prevent erosion. By removing poison ivy, we're getting rid of a food source for wildlife, and a method of land restoration. 

Figure 4: Urushiol

So it seems poison ivy is a friend to both the beach and the lovely Martha's Vineyard goats, but it still caused the chain reaction that leads me to lie on the floor in my favorite Thai restaurant. So what exactly is it that makes it a foe to us humans?

Part 4: Urushiol (not the villain in The Little Mermaid)
Urushiol is the oil in poison ivy that causes contact dermatitis (itchy, scratchy, bumpy rash) in humans. One billionth of a gram of urushiol can cause the allergic reaction (in 85% of humans--some are not affected). The oil can cling to clothes and tools, but it cannot be contracted through the air, only skin-to-skin contact (so you can still enjoy long days at the beach). Once exposed to the oil, the rash may take up to two weeks to show up. It passes through the epidermis, and your immune response is the rash. 

Urushiol when it comes into contact with the skin

Part 5: The conclusion
There are both good and bad things about poison ivy. While it helps hold the beach together, it causes a horrible itchy rash that I wouldn't wish on my worst enemy. Well, maybe my worst enemy but definitely nobody else.

S is for (P)sychedelic Scallops

Take a trip down to Sandy Hook and you'll find lots of cool things. There are horseshoe crabs, razor clams, oysters, and moon snails. Hidden among these creatures, in the deep blue sea, lies the best bivalve ever: the king scallop. Many of you have probably encountered this beauty on a plate seared in butter but between its two shells hides wonderful mysteries. But before we get into the magicalness of scallop anatomy just take a moment to watch how funny swimming scallops are.

They swim by taking water into their shells and then expelling it rapidly

                                                     

But the real shocker about scallops is that they can see!!!! What?!?!?!?!?!? And...... they have roughly 200 eyes each. Each eye is located on the end of a tentacle that can extend out of the shell. All the eyes are found on the mantle, the fleshy part inside the rim of the shell. Although each eye is the size of a poppy seed, they contain a lens, two retinas, and a mirror.

 Each blue dot is an eye

So how do these eyes work? Because they are so tiny it was a mystery until an Israeli team used super fancy microscopes last year to figure it out. Light passes through the lens and retina because they are pretty see-through. The light then hits the tiny mirror in the back of the eye and is reflected onto the back of the retinas. One retina focuses light to see the periphery while the other retina focuses what is immediately in front of the scallop. The periphery vision is used to find feeding grounds while the immediate vision is used to detect predators.

One of the newest breakthroughs has been to analyze the mirror used in scallop eyes. Human eyes only use a lens and retina so why use a mirror? Lenses are only good for focusing a very limited type of light while mirrors can reflect many more types, allowing the scallop to interpret more of its surroundings. The mirror is made up of guanine, one of the DNA bases. Molecules of guanine are assembled into tiny, flat squares that are arranged like tiles into a flat bottomed bowl structure. The mirror is about 30 layers thick with fluid between the layers. This structure allows the light to be redirected back to where it came from. Because of the structure these eyes are very good at interpreting blue light, the predominant light in the marine environment.

   

 A close-up of scallop eyes

The mirror technology that has been discovered in scallops could help......... space technology!! Telescopes are being designed with the same mirror idea to help scientists see into deep space. Isn't this cool? And to think these majestic beasts were in our own backyard this whole time!

A Not So Holy Insect: The Praying Mantis

I came across the lanky-looking dude below in my very own backyard. I was walking along the steps when I suddenly jumped back, noticing its long limbs and beady eyes staring up at me! Upon further research I found that it was a praying mantis, a Chinese Mantis to be more specific.

Clearly an adult; they grow to be about 9 cm!

Wowza!

These mantises were brought to this continent in the 1890's, and have made themselves at home ever since. Mantises look pretty nice--I mean they are praying, so they must be holy...right?

False.

Female mantises are ferocious. After mating with a male, she may rip his head off. Anthropologists presume it has to do with making mating more feasible, but they also know that there is no need for it to occur in the process. Wild. But they have a good side--for us at least. The praying mantis feeds on insects that are after our flowers and fruits in our gardens, so they aren't all that bad. Well, it's up to you. Are mantises ruthless cannibals or lanky human helpers?

Gardening Like Nature Intended

When I was younger, my family decided to take on the challenge of building a garden. My mom, the flower expert in the family, decided to work on the planting aspect of things, and my dad, the dreamer, decided to design and build the perfect backyard vegetable garden. I remember helping them weed and water the garden, checking most days to see the progress. Soon enough we sadly met defeat when we realized that animals had been getting our crops. Unable to declare defeat, my dad made different fencing mechanisms to save the few surviving plants. After that year, my family has sadly given up on a garden of crops, and my mom has resumed her amazing work planting flowers. However, this experience taught me that living in New Jersey came with the animals and pest of the northeast. So as I look around and see groundhogs and foxes, I started to wonder what people could do to save their crops.

The next step would be research and observations. For instance, I remembered that my grandma would make a special "cocktail" that would keep deer away from her plants. I also picked up on the fact that in class we had talked about how some plants even have natural repellents. To further understand how to make a change in my next garden, I looked at five ways I could use natural and alternative practices to help give protection and nutrients to my plants. I found a really interesting article that propelled this research.

One, Ladybugs: they may seem small and some would say cute, but they are very effective. They are crucial for protection against aphids, mites, and mealybugs. They give protection to the plants by eating these other insects. They can eat massive amounts of the insects per day, making them effective in a short amount of time. I was even surprised when my mom came home to tell me that they now sell them at the garden store. Also, if you plant fennel or dill you can easily attract them.

Lady Beetle/bug

Two, braconid wasps, in my opinion the coolest insect. It acts like Rogue from X-Men, impeding on the body of its host. These insects inject their larvae into the host, causing it to die once they are fully matured. This is important to deal with insects such as caterpillars, beetle larvae, moths, and more. To attract them you can plant stuff like dill, carrots, and parsley.

Three, ground beetles, they may seem a little scary, but they are truly helpful. They are beneficial for a different part of planting than the others listed above because they help with the soil. If you didn't know, soil is crucial to giving plants nutrients needed to grow. You can plant white clovers or perennials to attract them.

Four, oil spray insecticides, are a natural way to prevent insects such as aphids and mites from eating your plants. This mixture can be made by mixing one cup of vegetable oil and one tablespoon of soap. When using this spray, use two tablespoons of the mixture and one quart of water and shake it thoroughly. This spray will create a coating that will go on the insects and suffocate them.

Lastly, garlic insecticide spray is another great natural way to help plants grow. It combats the insects due to its pungent smell. To make this, first take two bulbs of garlic and puree it with a quart of water. Then leave the mixture overnight; in the morning strain it and put it in a jar then add one teaspoon of mild liquid soap and fill the rest of the jar with water. Also, if you want, you can add a half of a cup of vegetable oil, but this is optional. Next spray those insects and make a beautiful garden.

I thoroughly enjoyed researching this topic, and I hope that all of you yes you go out and try to make a garden only using natural techniques.

Give Peas a Chance!

AUG

Peas, you either love them or you hate them. We grow them in Rand Park in our garden.

So, what's the deal with peas? Between 1856 and 1863, Gregor Mendel conducted a series of experiments using pea plant, which would eventually become the basis for genetics. By testing for single gene traits, such as plant height, pod color, casing, and flower color, he was able to show regular patterns of inheritance. His choice of pea plants was important because the traits are controlled in a dominant and recessive way, as opposed to codominant or polygenetic, which would not such clear heritability patterns. We wanted to explore pea plants further, so we turned to Rand Park.

In our garden at Rand Park, there is an abundance of peas. Although some of us were initially afraid to get our hands dirty, we quickly took a liking to harvesting the peas. The plants themselves are beautiful with the pea pods emerging from little white flowers. With a trellis, these plants could be gorgeous and flourish even more.

Figure 1: Raised beds

Figure 2: Pea pod emerging from the flower

After harvesting so many pea pods, we began to realize the impact of this garden. The amount of food that can be collected and donated from a school garden is frankly incredible and it is such a good feeling to have been involved in it. As a matter of fact, two of us went back to the garden beds during lunch to get these pictures, and we also tasted a few! They were delicious and fresh; incomparable to the ones you can get at the grocery store.

Figure 3: Mary holding pea pods

Peas, important and delicious!

Figure 4: HipPEAS

By: Arianna Donas, Kate de Laforcade, and Mary Campos-Pereira
UAG

Talking to Yourself in your Sleep

Over the years, more often than not, I have shared a room with my younger sister, whether it be in a hotel room or at home. No big deal, but for as long as I remember, my sister has talked in her sleep (how weird). She often replays the day's events in her mind, talking to her best friends or her teammates on the soccer field. It turns out that sleep-talking, or somniloquy, is more common than I originally thought. According to my parents, my sister has talked in her sleep since she was a baby. About 50% of children between the ages of 3 and 10 talk in their sleep. Also, most occurrences are 30 second bursts. Most children who sleep-talk, grow out of it during puberty, so why does my 15 year old sister regularly have long conversations with herself throughout the night?

There are several stages of sleep, each differentiated by the level of electrical activity. When asleep, the brain's neural structures are temporarily paralyzed. REM sleep, or Rapid Eye Movement, is when all body muscles, except the eyes, are paralyzed. 
In this case, things like sleep-talking, sleep-walking, or any kind of parasomnia, most often occurs outside of this stage of sleep. Even so, it is possible for sleep-talking to occur during the REM stage. The brain fails to inactivate some motor functions, allowing one to speak. In other words, parts of the brain remain "asleep" while another is "awake." Sleep-talking during REM sleep, called "motor breakthrough" , usually consists of short utterances, but also multiple people to whom the person talks to. With that said, sleep-talking is usually seen in momentary lapses of consciousness when the individual is not in a deep sleep, also known as NREM or non-rapid eye sleep. This is why sleep-talking is common in the early stages of sleep. Contrary to what many may think, one does not dream during NREM sleep, meaning that the sleeper usually doesn't even "see" the people who they are talking to. The real question is what do we say when we sleep-talk?  NREM sleep-talking is usually more complex than REM in that the sentences are more complete and are presented as single thoughts. What's said is less likely to be connected to one another. In both REM and NREM sleep, it is common for the sleeper to go through the past day's events and encounters. Whether the sleeper has long conversations or a few incoherent bursts, in the morning the individual has no recollection of what was said. Additionally, sleep-talking usually isn't treated, as it does not negatively affect one's health. Maybe the best treatment plan is just to get some earplugs for a good night's sleep.

Pick Some Parsley, Pull a Weed

Those that teach an Advanced Placement (AP) course in the Northeast have almost an entire month to kill between the exam and the last day of school (school's out for summer in early June for most in the US). The first time I taught the course, I stressed a bit about what to do because everyone--and I mean everyone--is spent and the curriculum is finished. But I found the perfect antidote to the end-of-the-year AP Bio fatigue: the outdoors, specifically the MHS Farm and Rand Park. I worried a bit that some students would recoil at the thought of digging in the dirt and spreading mulch but as I watched our landscape/gardening time unfold this year, I breathed a huge sigh of relief. Using my claim-evidence-reasoning (CER) skills that my students and I have honed in AP Bio, I think I can safely claim that the kids enjoy being outside. My evidence? Smiling students (see below). My reasoning? The biophilia hypothesis. I recognize that I'm a taskmaster the entire year. It's a mental marathon at the beginning and middle of the year and a physical one at the end but I believe we all feel a deep sense of pride in what we have learned in the classroom and what we have built and grown outside of it.

Adira and Hanan planting some basil

Donovan and Cameron spreading some mulch

Most days after the AP Bio exam on May 14th, I took my students outside to Rand Park. Our two main tasks were to maintain and build upon our perennial pollinator bed by Toney's Brook and grow as much food as possible in our raised beds in front of the annex. Some very kind and thoughtful students gave me a gift card for a local nursery to buy some vining perennials for the wooden structure in Rand Park and we jury-rigged a trellis on the structure with nails and fishing line (fingers crossed the clematis climbs because if it does, it will be quite lovely).

Ben and Isaac making a fishing line trellis for the clematis

Nicole and Roisin don't need a hose to water--all they need is a bucket and the willingness to wade in Toney's Brook

We devoted most of our time to our raised beds. I don't think I am exaggerating when I say these beds bring joy to many including those that plant the seeds, those that water the beds (I have yet to meet a student that doesn't enjoy using the hose), those that weed the beds (hard to believe but it's true) and those that harvest the vegetables. The majority of the food that we grow is donated to Toni's Kitchen. It was deeply satisfying to wash the lettuce we grew this spring and donate these tender greens to such a wonderful organization.

Loose leaf lettuce grown at the MHS farm 

Triple washed and ready to go!

Planting a seed is not complicated and it's practically fail-proof but every single time I plant a seed, I feel like it's a miracle when the green shoot emerges from the soil and perfectly formed leaves unfurl. Most of the seeds we plant in our garden are not fussy--they need only the right temperature of soil (peas for example will germinate in soil that is 40-85 degrees F) and water to germinate--that's it! Many seeds do not actually need light to germinate, but most lettuce seeds do, therefore you only lightly press these seeds in the ground and ensure they are kept moist. And with those basic requirements met, our bare garden beds are transformed into seas of green. A dormant seed is basically a tiny, pale plant embryo surrounded by a source of food and a protective seed coat. When I look at a lettuce seed, which is about 3mm, I marvel at the potential waiting to spring forth from such a small object. When a seed is watered, imbibition occurs, which is the process of a dehydrated seed absorbing water through diffusion. The water is necessary for the metabolic processes that allow for cell division of the embryo, mainly breaking down the seed's food reserves, such as starch. A seed buried in soil is not yet photosynthesizing so it cannot yet weave together water from the ground and carbon dioxide from the air to make sugars. The seed relies on its stored food until photons strike the plant and induce the production of chlorophyll, that magical molecule that makes photosynthesis possible. When I harvest vegetables that I have grown from seed, I feel a deep sense of pride and accomplishment, as if I somehow did the hard work that the plant actually did. I think just maybe my students feel the same--check out those grins!

Alek and Morgan displaying their hard work

A gardener, however, can't just plant seeds, water the beds and sit back and relax. Perhaps the least favorite task of most gardeners is weeding. Ralph Waldo Emerson declared weeds as "plants whose virtues have yet to be discovered." Emerson's quote aside, weeds are plants that are growing somewhere one doesn't want them to grow, like in a veggie garden, because they compete with the prized veggies for resources. Weeding is like homework: if one stays on top of it, it's quite manageable, but if it's ignored, it quickly becomes overwhelming. I was pleasantly surprised to see that some students actually enjoy weeding.

Tal, Tillie and Maya are weeding affionados

Gabbi and Birgitta weeding and harvesting peas

Claire, Donovan and Cameron clearing a bed before planting peppers

Very soon, however, there will be no students to weed. But the garden must grow on! The MHS garden is a community garden, here for all to enjoy. Although the majority of food is donated, there is plenty to go around. Those that walk by can pick some beans, peas, tomatoes and cukes (within reason of course). My request, though, is that those that reap the benefits of the plants' and students' hard work, take the time to pull a weed or two. It's a true give-and-take.

And so, if you are walking by the MHS Farm this summer and fall, feel free to pick some parsley but also take the time to pull a weed.

I can't write about the MHS Garden without recognizing the dedication of Lily Becker, who was a student in my AP Bio class in 2016-17. She is the driving force that keeps the garden growing and the plants and I will miss her immensely next year.

A Bent Backbone

Some may argue that your spine is the most important bone in the whole body. It holds you up throughout life as a back bone for all of your movement. The spine is what holds and protects the spinal cord what allows for any bodily movement. The importance of this organ is sometimes forgotten behind the beauty of a steady heart or a thinking brain, but the spine is truly an anatomical amazement. But it is hard to understand the idea of how the backbones strength affects you when its twisted. Scoliosis is a condition where instead of the spine being straight and holding the body exactly straight, the spine is twisted and curved. The curvature of the spine effects the location of other bones that depend on the spine to hold them in place. People with scoliosis may have protruding ribs, uneven shoulders, or uneven hips, all resulting from a sometimes minimal curvature. 

Anatomical anterior view of a spine with scoliosis and how it effects the body

The curve that people with scoliosis have can be as unique as their finger print. Some people have a singular curve where over time their spine curves into the shape of a “C”. Others have double curves where the spine turns into an “S”. The curve can also be in different locations, cervical (upper), thoracic (middle), or lumbar (lower), further making the spine unique. The severity of the curve is measured in degrees, 1-10 degrees is considered a straight spine while the curvature can get to a degrees of 70 before surgery is the option. People with scoliosis identify with their curve, when they describe their spine it’s like they are speaking a common language. “Double curve, thoracic 35 degrees and lumbar 40 degrees,” someone might say to a friend. 

Comparable Examples of Different Types of Spinal Curvature 

The most common cause of scoliosis is unknown, which is Idiopathic. When 2-3 percent of children in the United States are diagnosed the only explanation they get for their unique spine is it’s random. But according to studies by the U.S National Library of Medicine, the condition is most likely not a single gene disorder and instead based on multiple genes each playing a role in the condition and how the spine curves. The only obvious risk factor is that young girls are 5 times more likely to have the disease.  This would suggest that the condition is an X-linked dominant disease, but parent X-rays dispute that hypothesis. I was diagnosed with scoliosis at age 10, my sister was diagnosed soon after and my mother had a progressive curve when she was an adolescent. When I was younger this was enough to suggest that somehow the condition is genetically linked and passed to my sister and I from our mother. But becoming more aware of this condition I know of its sporadic nature and that familial recurrence only makes up about 10 percent of idiopathic scoliosis patients. 

Many other studies have been done to discover the etiology of scoliosis. For instance, monozygotic twins have a higher prevalence of scoliosis at 73%-92% compared to dizygotic twins at 36%-63%. Hormonal imbalances and theories involving structural tissue abnormalities have also been studied. These are based of the knowledge of diseases such as spinal muscular atrophy and polyostotic fibrous dysplasia that are similar conditions involving the decrease structural integrity of bones. However, even after extensive research and testing the etiology is still unknown. Studies have shown there is a strong genetic linkage to the cause of scoliosis however neurological, environmental and behavioral patterns all play a role. Most of my doctors have even given me special notes so that I do not have to carry heavy books or back packs because even this can lead to a spinal deformity.  

The spinal deformation of scoliosis leads to many problems as the condition progresses in severity and also throughout adult life because of the importance that the spine plays in holding your body together. The possible outcomes of a child’s curve progressing sometimes pushes doctors into suggest a brace as a treatment. The function of this brace is essentially to put so much pressure on the spine that it pushes the curve from increasing. This brace, made of common materials such as plastic or plexiglass, is supposed to act as the spine holding a body straight. The idea that an external force is supposed to correct something that your genes coded for is difficult for a child living with scoliosis to understand, so many do not even wear the brace the amount that they are supposed to.

Boston Brace Used for Keeping Spinal Curvature From Progressing

A very small proportion of people suffering with scoliosis have to have corrective surgery. This is suggested for patients with a curve measured above 40 degrees and progression is expected. The most frequently performed surgery for correcting scoliosis is spinal fusion. This is a posterior approach where the spine is fused using screws to attach two metal rods on the sides of the vertebra, which pull the spine straight. A second surgery is an anterior approach called vertebral body tethering, is less invasive and much more modern. It uses half as many screws to use a tether to pull the spine straight. Both approaches as safe and effective in correcting the curvature of the spine. 

              

Image on the left shows x-ray post spinal fusion surgery, Image on the right shows x-ray post vertebral body tethering surgery.

This disease is something that is very easy to spot. For exact diagnosis you should visit a spinal specialist and get a spinal x-ray. Schools do a simple test to check for scoliosis but it is very easy to do at home. By checking the rotation of your spine by bending over to tough your toes, you can see if you should be check by a professional. Schools do this because it is much easier for scoliosis to be stopped at a younger age, but some countries are not fortunate enough to have these checks or spread awareness of scoliosis. Some children in impoverished countries have curves so bad that surgery is not an option. Part of my reasoning for this article was my personal connection as well as wanting to spread that awareness to others less fortunate so they can recognize scoliosis.

Tasteless Tomatoes

New Jersey is the Garden State. One of my favorite summertime activities is walking down the street to the farmer's market and purchasing fresh and delicious produce, produce which almost always makes it into my meal as soon as I get home.

The Beginning of Our Tomato Garden in Rand Park

Since its very inception, genetic modification has been applied to food sources in designing a product that has a combination of the best qualities. Genetically modified tomatoes bruise less easily and can withstand longer travels, grow more uniformly and consistently than normal tomatoes, and have improved disease resistance. But why are the tomatoes I buy at the store so much bigger, but the ones at the farmers market taste better. Seriously, the ones I buy at the store taste like cardboard. To explore this, the difference between heirlooms, hybrids, and GMOs is essential to understanding.

Heirloom tomatoes got their name from the tactic of seed saving. Historically, farmers would save seeds and pass the seeds down from generation to generation, hence "heir." Seed saving, it seems, is not as easy at it might seem. The health of the "mother" plant, the maturity of the seed, and specific techniques that preserve fertility, and population size must be taken into account. Tomatoes are self-pollinating (they have both male and female reproductive organs) so an isolation distance must be implemented to ensure that cross pollination does not occur. Maintaining genetic diversity in heirlooms is incredibly important because the chances of mutations are increased if a farmer only saves seeds of a particular plant. Therefore, seed-savers must take care that negatively inherited traits are dispersed across a large population of saved plants. As farmers move away from the tactic of seed saving, genetic diversity of tomatoes has decreased, which can be dangerous in a population.

Heirloom Tomatoes Come in All Shapes And Sizes

So what are hybrid tomatoes? Come on, we know alllll about hybrids. (Thanks Mendel!) Hybrids have two different genetic parents. Hybridizers usually aren't thinking about taste when they're making their magic (hence why store-bought tomatoes are often bland), but rather factors like yields, uniformity, disease resistance, size, etc. Plus, you can't save these seeds and expect the yield to be the same. The next generation will have traits that will revert back to one of the genetic parents.

Now, onto GMOs, genetically modified organisms. GMOs have genetic material thats been altered using technology that can, like, do that. There are lots of crops that are GMO-ed, so to speak, including corn, soy, canola, and cotton. But, GMO tomatoes aren't quite as popular. There's a whole GMO debate that I won't get into, but altering plants genetics isn't a new phenomenon.

Given the choice between taste and all those other factors, I'm going to stick with taste. Thanks heirloom!

An Overgrown Shrub to a Majestic Japanese Maple

When my parents first bought our house in Montclair in August 2005, they loved every part of it except for this ugly, 12 feet tall tree that lacked curb appeal. The monstrosity looked dead and took up space in our front yard. Its long branches hung low and it looked like an overgrown bush. After a while, my parents decided they would remove it in the spring. However, little did they know, the tree would gain beautiful red orange leaves and it is worth over $25,000!

My family in 2009, loving our beautiful tree!

After our Japanese Maple gained its leaves and my parents fell in love with the tree for its beautiful color and its low branches, which were perfect for young children to climb, the tree in our front yard has become an integral part of our family. Its winding branches and leaves that cover the inside completely made it a perfect fort for my siblings and I to hide in when we were younger. As we grew out of the tree, our young next door neighbors began climbing in it and now an entire neighborhood has experienced the beauty, strength and joy of our tree. It is an amazing tree that defined my childhood and we seek to protect it, especially from last year's harsh winter (see video below). 

My father risking life during a snowstorm this year to protect our tree! 

The scientific name for our specific Japanese Maple is Acer palmatum var. dissectum. Japanese Maples grow in full sun to partial shade and grow their leaves during the spring and lose them in November. They grow in temperate forests in the Northeastern United States. 

Japanese Maple leaves up close!

Japanese Maples originate from Japan, and the first mention of them in Japan is from the 7th century! Eventually, the first specimen made its way to England in 1820, and then to America in 1860 when George Hall, an American living in Yokohama, Japan, sent back seeds for Japanese Maples. Unfortunately, the Japanese Maples suffered a setback during World War II, as an estimated 300 species were lost due to over-harvesting and garden clearing for resources during the war. 

This panda and I agree that the Japanese should have saved the trees!

This year, my family was concerned because our beautiful Japanese Maple did not lose its leaves in November like the last 13 years where we have watched its leaves gracefully fall to the ground. Although we were initially concerned that our tree was dying, my family did research and found that our tree did not lose its leaves because the cold came too quickly.

Our tree should have looked like this during the winter. 

The science behind our Japanese Maple keeping its leaves is that the quick cold interrupted our tree's biochemical pathways that prepared the tree for the winter. Specifically, our tree, like other deciduous trees, form a layer of cells between the leaves and the branches called an abscission zone when they are planning to shed their leaves. This zone seals the branch off from the leaf and allows for very little water loss when the leaf is shed. This process is caused when the tree releases auxin and ethylene, two plant hormones that cause leaves to shed. The release of auxin and ethylene begin the biochemical pathway, which must have been interrupted this year. 

A photo explaining leaf abscission. 

After learning all of these fascinating biological happenings in our tree, it continues to amaze us after 13 years! Now, go out and buy yourself a Japanese Maple, it will live up to your every expectation! 

Me with my Japanese Maple in 2018! 

Cry me a River

Claire Whipple

I do not remember the first time I cried. Granted, I was only about twenty-four hours old (I know, I was one of those silent babes), but I have no recollection of the first tears I shed. Nor can I remember the first time I smiled, laughed, gasped, or expressed any other of those affectations that are universal to humankind. I have always wondered, however, at the reasoning behind why my infant mind resorted to such forms of emotional expression. In the womb, had I received chemical signals when my mother's hypothalamus secreted dopamine, causing me to associate the sound of her laughter with happiness? I was most curious about those human affectations that develop even before babies possess full visual acuity (around 6-8 months of age) because it was less likely that those expressions could be explained by the human practice of imitating visual cues. What is it in our internal hardware (what we biologists like to call DNA) that activates our tear glands when we experience intense sadness or joy? What are the evolutionary advantages of crying that have allowed it to manifest in every human being? I wanted to find out. 

Today, most scientists agree that "tears are a form of social signaling that evolved from mammalian distress calls – a clear visual signal in other words that someone is in pain or danger and needs help." This explanation for tears is logical, especially when considering human babies and their inability to communicate. When infants feel any form of discomfort or stress, they often cry, simply because they have no other method of seeking assistance and alleviating their discomfort. This theory concerning lacrimation also holds true for adults, as the tears of an adult with a newly-broken leg will often result in their receiving medical assistance and support. 

However, this theory does not explain why many only cry when they are removed from the presence of all others, or why someone would burst into tears while they're driving alone. In these cases, there is no one to which these social signals can be sent, yet these occurrences happen quite frequently. These more emotional tears contain higher levels of stress hormones than reflex or basal tears and are produced in response to a gamut of emotions, including stress, pleasure, anger, sadness, and suffering. They also include leucine enkephalin, an endorphin and natural painkiller that some scientists claim is responsible for the cathartic feeling one has after a hearty, blubbery cry. Basically, upon experiencing one of the aforementioned emotions, our hypothalamus produces the acetylcholine neurotransmitter, which then travels to the lacrimal gland to induce tear production. Many scientists have proposed differing purposes of these tears, such as to release stress hormones, to alert oneself of a problem that must be addressed, or simply to espouse vulnerability.

Of course, societal and cultural factors play into why some prefer to cry in solitude rather than in company, or why males tend to cry less than females (even though some studies have found that a hormone in testosterone can reduce production of acetylcholine, which would inhibit tear production). But when it comes down to it, the common factor of tear shedding among hundreds of studies seems to be the utilization of empathy and the subconscious desire to do something when faced with an emotionally difficult problem, even when one is unable to solve it. So the next time you reach for that box of tissues, send your brain a silent thanks for using tears to express your emotions instead of incessant screaming or a mental breakdown.

Germs: the Key to Ruling the World

Say it with me now, “In 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue.” We’ve all heard this rhyme before and we all know what happens next: Columbus ‘finds’ North America, Spain colonizes the land, the natives are all but wiped out, and the great kingdom of Christianity expands boundlessly. The Spanish accomplished this feat through their advanced technology, wonderful guns, and a their own secret weapon: germs.

Figure 1: Columbus' famous journey

Figure 2: the first encounter between the Spanish and the Natives (watch out for germs!!!)

Some historians approximate that almost 95% of the native population was killed by European germs. The most deadly among them was smallpox. So let’s dive in and find out how smallpox handed the Western Hemisphere to them gosh darn Spaniards.

 Smallpox is a virus, woohoo our favorite!!! A virus is a little blip that is genetic information all bundled up in a little cocoon of protein. Smallpox has its genetic information stored in its beautifully stable DNA double helix. It’s been so effective at killing its hosts in the last thousand years that it barely has to mutate to survive. One study found that in 10 years the only mutations in the genome were three single nucleotides. Anyhoooo, so the smallpox virus enters the human host through the nose or mouth, moves to the lungs, multiplies, and spreads through the lymphatic system. It causes lots of little pustules to form throughout the skin that are filled with smallpox DNA. When these pustules *pop* they spread smallpox DNA to whomever is around. Infected persons tend to die with 12 days. :((((sad.

Figure 3: the smallpox virus!!!

But wait!!! Not all the Europeans died from smallpox. Smallpox became transmitted to humans from farm animals. As Europeans farmed and lived with their animals, they became exposed to the big S. But some people became immune. Stick with me here, it’s going to get a wee bit confusing. When a pathogen (a little baddy guy) enters the body, we got some ways to fight em. Certain cells will eat the bad guy, chop it up real small, and then display it for the rest of the immune system to see. The cell essentially briefs the other cells and says, “Look at this guy. I. Just. Ate. Him. If you see anything that might possibly even resemble this, KILL IT on sight.” In response to this, the B cells produce antibodies that essentially neutralize the threat of those goshdarn smallpox viruses. Through this immunity, Europeans were able to have tiny smallpox virus in their bodies that didn't cause them harm but could be introduced to other populations. BUm bUM bUm!!!

Back to the story!!! When those silly Spaniards arrived on Hispaniola they brought with them smallpox.The virus moved from the immune European population to the native population that had never seen this disease. The cells in the native people's bodies could not create antibodies in time so the disease spread like wildfire. The virus spread faster than the Spanish who had to lug around all their conquistador stuff. Many times the Spanish would arrive at a village to conquer it and find it had already been conquered by the best ally ever: SMALLPOX.

And that's how it's done. Moral of the story: if you want to conquer a place inhabited by people already all you have to bring with you are a couple germs that those people haven't seen before.

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Photos from: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6