Life Without the Sun: Hydrothermal Vent Communities

We have learned a great deal of information about life and its versatility from the oceans, including possible insights into how life started or how it could exist on other planets. Multiple moons in our solar system such as Enceladus and Europa, contain oceans just like ours that are covered in ice. Hydrothermal vents prove that life can exist in places with no sunlight. To me, this fact is fascinating.

In the deepest parts of the ocean, life is quite sparse. There is no sunlight below 1000 meters, temperatures are near freezing, and the pressure is extreme. However, in certain select regions where tectonic plates are separating, there exist regions where the density of life is 10,000 to 100,000 times greater than the surrounding ocean floor. These biological hotspots are centered around hydrothermal vents, or underwater geysers, and the communities of organisms that they host are not dependent on the sun.

Hydrothermal vent: source

Hydrothermal vents were first discovered in 1977 in an area very familiar to evolutionary study, the Galapagos Ridge. To the shock of scientists, hydrothermal vents were found to be teaming with life. Because hydrothermal vents expel toxic minerals like hydrogen sulfide, which is dangerous to most organisms, it was predicted that life could not exist there. Through further research, it was discovered that bacteria were converting those toxic minerals into energy through a process called chemosynthesis.

Chemosynthetic bacteria: source

Chemosynthesis serves the same role that photosynthesis plays in that it produces energy for the community. In the chemical reaction, the bacteria oxidize hydrogen sulfide and adds carbon dioxide and oxygen to produce sugar and waste products like sulfur. Some waste products are consumed by other organisms and some are toxic. Archaea also perform chemosynthesis around hydrothermal vents through processes like methanogenesis, which uses energy from hydrogen and releases methane. Chemical processes like these allow hydrothermal vent communities to be almost completely independent of the sun.

Tubeworms, crabs, muscles, barnacles, and swarms of shrimp at the Juan de Fuca Ridge: source

Chemosynthetic bacteria and archaea act as the primary producers and form what is known as biofilm, a layer of slime and bacteria that helps other organisms stick to surfaces. These sheets of bacteria and slime are then consumed by grazing shrimp and limpets. The small grazing organisms that consume the bacteria are consumed by larger organisms like tubeworms, crabs, and fish. Chemosynthetic bacteria are also used in a multitude of symbiotic relationships. Species like tubeworms contain colonies of chemosynthetic bacteria that detoxify the tubeworm's blood and use the toxins to create energy for the worm and the bacteria.

Artistic description of harsh surface conditions during the Archean eon: source

Hydrothermal vents are thought by some to be the origin of life. The surface of the early Earth was extremely hot, radiated, volcanic, and under bombardment from meteorites. With this in mind and the fact that the earliest living organisms lived in the oceans, it is understood that organic molecules were first synthesized in the ocean or Earth's crust. It is also known that early life used chemosynthetic processes for energy. This makes hydrothermal vents a possible starting point for life on Earth. In Günter Wächtershäuser's Metabolism First theory, he theorizes that life began with small metabolic processes that lead to replication. He theorized that hydrothermal vents, containing elements like carbon dioxide, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, oxygen, and iron-sulfur compounds like pyrrhotite and pyrite reacted and lead to self replicating chemical processes.

Hydrothermal vents are created during volcanic activity, and just as easily as they can be created, they can suddenly stop flowing. This leads to a slow death for the community around the vents and a dispersal of its organisms in search of a new vent. Exploration of hydrothermal vents is incredibly expensive and difficult, so much is still unknown about these fascinating biological oases in the deep ocean. 

To me, hydrothermal vent communities are fascinating just because of how alien they appear. Preposterous organisms like tubeworms, Pompeii worms, and yeti crabs all look like they come from another planet. When you take into account that the hydrothermal vent acts like a small sun and life down there is independent of the greater food web, it isn't crazy to call them alien.

The Science of Lactic Acid Production in Athletes

Your lungs ache. Sweating buckets, you keep pumping your legs. It's hard, but you're almost at the top. Your legs hurt, they really hurt. "Is this normal?!" you ask yourself, as your legs feel more and more like solid rocks than something that you can actually move. The feeling in your legs seems to drain you of your energy, but actually, it is meant to give you energy. This is part of the lactic acid cycle and ATP.

What is lactic acid?

Lactic acid as we know it is basically lactate, which is a byproduct of lactic acid fermentation. We mostly know lactic acid in the form that builds up in our muscles, which often happens during exercise because our bodies are in an oxygen-deprived state.

How do we normally get our energy?

Normally, our bodies use oxygen in a cycle called oxidative phosphorylation, where the biggest of three parts that produce ATP, without this cycle, the body doesn't produce nearly as much ATP, as it can only undergo glycolysis.

Why do we produce lactic acid?

Our bodies need energy, especially when exercising, when you exercise, your cells break down various macromolecules to synthesize ATP in a process called cellular respiration. Cellular respiration requires, among other things, oxygen. In a lack of oxygen, such as when one exercises, the body resorts to breaking down carbohydrates (such as glucose) to make the needed energy. There are various stages of energy usage which I won't go in to because it makes everything more complicated, but you can find information here.

The real culprit behind the burning

Although lactic acid is really critical to the production of ATP and exercise, research has indicated that it is not actually the lactic acid that burns, although it does make you sore. The real culprit is hydrogen. As a result of the breakdown of ATP, hydrogen is released, hydrogen is acidic, and with the body not being able to clear it fast enough, builds up in your muscles, and burns. This may seem to make everything even more confusing, but just remember its all part of the same process, which is the producion and usage of ATP.

How do athletes treat lactic acid?

In competitive athletes and across a variety of sports (such as endurance and strength endurance sports like running, cycling, rowing, etc) lactic acid can often be viewed as a negative thing, despite its overall positive effects. This is because it hurts, and that pain may prevent even better performance in athletes. So what can you do? One solution for athletes is lactate threshold training. It may seem complicated at first, but the basic premise is to train in a certain intensity level so that an athlete can build up their 

Conclusion

Lactic acid may hurt, but it is a necessary part of a lot of sports. When we know the science, we can really see how lactic acid helps us in the end, by producing energy in the absence of oxygen. Learning to deal with lactic acid can greatly help an athlete and give them an edge up on the competition, but when you are in pain and doubt, you may use the wise words of my coach, "Just get on with it."

Writers comments/Why I wrote this article

Lactic acid is something that I often deal with as a rower, and it constitutes a good deal of the pain that comes with rowing. I wanted to seek out more information about it that might possibly help me and other athletes. 

How Engineers Use Your Neural Pathways to Program Prosthetics

Neural processors are the future of the prosthetic world, allowing more technology to be incorporated and restoring more function to the amputee or patient. There is a lot of science behind how they work, but also how this will impact the disabled community moving forward. 

Let's talk definitions for a minute. What even is a neural processor? What's a neuron? 

Well, neurons are the cells in the body responsible for receiving sensory input from outside factors, such as sound, pressure, vibrations, smell, and more. They are also responsible for transmitting this input to the brain as a way of controlling the body's reaction to outside factors. Read more about neurons here. 

Photo imaging of a series of neurons a brain from NPR

So what's a neural processor? 

A neural processor is a specialized circuit. It involves controlling and using math to execute machine functions, typically by using predictive models. These exist in digital devices, such as phones, computers, TVs, laptops, and watches. They also exist in cars, airplanes, trains, and more. 

For the brain, there is a more advanced version of an NP, called a neural net processor. It takes the understood workings of the brain, makes a model, and functions as a chip. It is also sometimes called a cognitive chip. Read more about NNP's here.

Photo of a net neural processor used in computers and prosthetics from Samsung.

So, how do NNP's and prosthetics go to together?

Scientists and Biomedical engineers have designed prosthetics using NNP's to read the brain's neuron transmissions in order to make the prosthetics function. NNP prosthetics can be used on patients only when there is enough salvageable nerve endings to make the prosthetic function. These prosthetics can be almost anywhere, from a finger to the partial leg to a full leg to a foot to an arm. Most commonly you will see prosthetic legs and arms because that is when the NNP comes most in handy. Below are some diagrams as to how different NNP prosthetic legs function! For more information about different prosthetic types, read this, and this, or this.

A description of a prosthetic leg with a knee joint that use a C-processor, which is a form of an NNP from Brown

A description of a prosthetic leg without knee join that uses an NNP to imitate feeling in the leg from the National Institute of Health

Diagram of a prosthetic hand with wrist joint that uses and N-processor (an NNP) from Slash Gear

So how are these developments making huge splashes in the disability world, both good and bad? Well some argue that the constant evolution of prosthetics to match the need is exceptional, and can restore function to the patient for necessary tasks to be self-sufficient.

 Another viewpoint is that pushing the development of prosthetics is harmful to the disabled community because it is a way of making them more suitable to the world, instead of making the world and our ways of life more accessible to people with impairments. While most people understand why this development in prosthetics is really important, it is still understandable that there is frustration about not being paid attention to except for science. Read more about disability resources here and here. 

Others are focused on another thing: cost. Prosthetics are expensive. Like really, really expensive. And for one with a NNP, the price typically quadruples, and most insurance only covers half of a regular prosthetic that needs to last two years. The average cost for a prosthetic leg without an NNP is $27,000, and with one, upwards of $70,000. And with the limited amount of money people are allowed to hold to keep disability insurance, that sort of money isn't feasible. The next step in research needs to be how to make prosthetics themselves more accessible to those who need them, and eventually how to mass produce ones with NNP's. For more about the cost of prosthetics, look here, and here, or here.

There are so many different opinions on both prosthetics and also biotic prosthetics, and I think they often cloud out the actual magnitude of how far the world has come in technology. It's miraculous that we can hook some wires up to some nerve endings and somehow, the brain can feel something that doesn't technically exist, as well as perform incredible tasks. Not to mention, the freedom little kids who had amputations now have, and adults late in life who lost limbs, and even those born with disabilities. It's a game changer. And also for people with phantom limb pain, which is a high rate of suicide in disabled patients, it can alleviate some of those symptoms. There are so many incredible facets of biotic prosthetics that we should give proper credit too! 

Thanks for reading, I hope you enjoyed, if you have any questions or ideas, email me at m.j.hedgepeth6@gmail.com ! 

Déjà Vu: A Blogpost So Nice You'll Read It Twice

Are you reading this for the second time? Or is it just déjà vu? The world may never know. 

An artist's depiction of déjà vu

We've all experienced déjà vu at one point or another in our lives. The feeling that somehow, the memory you are actively making in the moment has actually happened to you before. You look around, everything is exactly how you "remember it", everything plays out perfectly. You can't predict what's going to happen next, but somehow you have already experienced it. Then all of a sudden you snap out of it, resuming a normal person's way of life. 

So now I imagine you are asking, why does this happen? Well, scientists aren't completely certain on how it occurs, but apparently one thing they are certain about is that it's not a sign that we're living in The Matrix. In my opinion, this is a rather boring conclusion by scientists. Nonetheless, let's jump into what scientists say.

Diagram of a human brain

Déjà vu is caused by a circuit malfunction in your brain that causes you to perceive what is happening in the moment as a memory. Memory is stored in the temporal lobe of the brain, so logically it is where the circuit malfunction takes place. Evidence to support this is that people who experience temporal lobe epilepsy have similar "glitches" during a seizure. However, this does not meant that if you experience déjà vu you have an unhealthy brain, or have epilepsy. Déjà vu is a totally normal, and about 2/3 of humans experience it.

I feel the need to mention some alternative theories. Some people say that déjà vu could possibly be a memory you have from a past life, or an alternative universe. These theories are not backed up by science, but they are, in my opinion, more fun than an electrical circuit malfunction in your brain. Next time you experience déjà vu, just think about how you could have been seeing an alternative universe or one of your past lives.

Throughout my life, I have experienced déjà vu numerous times. The funny thing is, whenever I do, I try to remember what is "supposed" to happen next and I try not to do that. Sadly, this hasn't worked, and seemingly everything I do during the déjà vu moment I do in fact "remember". If I ever have déjà vu and I manage to break the moment, I will update this post as long as the world doesn't somehow end because of it.

If you do choose to read this blogpost over, it's like Yogi Berra said, it's "déjà vu all over again".

Genetically Modified Mosquitoes: What Are They All About?

Illustration by Joseph Laney.

For many people, summer is a time people look forward to. It's the season of the beach, picnics, and unfortunately, mosquitoes. These insects are such a nuisance that you've probably thought to yourself, "why don't we just eradicate them from the planet?" or possibly even "why don't we change them so that they don't drink human blood?" Well, biologists have thought about this question too, so let's talk about the causes and effects of genetic modification.

Mosquitoes are vectors for thousands of diseases, including malaria, Chikungunya, Encephalitis, West Nile virus, Zika virus, yellow fever, and dengue fever. All of these are still known to be fatally dangerous to humans around the world. With the discovery of CRISPR-Cas-9 technology in 2012, the risk of contracting such diseases has been rapidly decreasing. Genetic modification is an ultimately more viable and preferable alternative to the eradication of mosquitoes that allows for the selective change of genes that contribute to the passing on of disease.

Various people affected by Chikungunya virus, Mayo Clinic Proceedings.

An infant affected by Zika virus, Antonio Lacerda.

In a study, Research Associates at Imperial College genetically modified the malaria-transmitting mosquito Anopheles gambiae. They used CRISPR-Cas9 technology to insert a gene that encodes an antimalarial protein amidst genes that are turned on after the mosquito eats a blood meal. The team bred the mosquitoes to see if they could reproduce successfully and stay healthy. Additionally, The biotechnology firm Oxitech released male mosquitoes in the Florida Keys engineered to carry a deadly gene that causes their female offspring to die before reaching maturity. Since only female mosquitoes bite animals and people, the modified mosquitoes and their surviving male offspring cannot pass on disease.

The goal of most modification is to reduce the risk of contracting mosquito-borne illnesses without killing them all. Over 3,500 species of mosquito have been discovered, and mosquitoes are an integral part of our ecosystem; they are pollinators, which is extremely important due to the decline of the honey bee population, and they are a source of food for several animals. The release of the modified mosquitoes in Florida sparked controversy among residents because they simply did not want to see anything genetically engineered in their environment. As an emotional response, this makes sense since they did not make the decision to let the changed insects loose. Not only are locals scared that they might be effected by them, but they are worried that more harmful insects will fill in the void left by mosquitoes in the ecosystem. The scientists conducting the research have not well-studied the environmental risks of genetically modifying mosquitoes, but this is expected to be researched with these clinical trials in Florida.

The city of Douala, Emiliano Gandolfi.

Personally, I admire mosquitoes as a valuable part of our ecosystem and find research studies such as those done by Oxitech very admirable. My dad grew up in Cameroon, a West African country, and has had malaria more times than he can remember. He was extremely ill for all those times, and my mom has also been sick from the virus. Furthermore, he lived in the densely-populated city of Douala for a time, which is  a breeding hotspot. As travelers may know, the vaccine for malaria can also induce sickness comparable to the virus itself. When I needed to be vaccinated for my trip to Cameroon, I experiences nightmares and cold sweats, and I never even got malaris. I believe that genetic modification is a fantastically ground-breaking solution to mosquito borne illnesses and the ailments that come along with it.

The Cure for Type 1 Diabetes

Living with type 1 diabetes has never been easy. Aside from what people usually think about like having to count carbs, inject myself with insulin, and constantly monitor my blood sugar, it also has other, less acknowledged side effects. Having type 1 diabetes means countless questions from strangers as well as trying not to feel discouraged or angry when people say over and over, "can you eat that?" "you don't look diabetic," and "have you tried eating more cinnamon, I'm sure it'll cure you." This last one in particular is frustrating because cinnamon obviously isn't a cure, and no matter how far science has come, there never seemed to be a one in sight, but now, all of that may be changing. 

Firstly, type 1 diabetes (or T1D) isn't caused by eating too much sugar as common misconceptions may lead you to believe. Though the exact cause of T1D is unknown, the most common hypothesis is that it is caused by an autoimmune reaction in which beta cells in the pancreas, responsible for the production of insulin, are destroyed. Since insulin is responsible for regulating the glucose levels in a person's blood, without it, their blood sugar will go too high or too low. This can result in immediate side effects such as nausea, dehydration, and dizziness, and long-term side effects such as nerve damage, heart and blood vessel disease, blindness, and even death. 

Comparison of the production of insulin by a healthy and a T1D pancreas 

Thanks to modern medicine and treatment plans, T1D is no longer a life-threatening diagnosis and can be controlled by monitoring the patient's blood sugar and using regular insulin injections.  This type of treatment, however, is time-consuming, expensive, and doesn't work for everyone. Because of this, scientists have been working for years to discover a cure, and thanks to new advances that no longer seems like a fantasy.

In 2014 a huge breakthrough was made in the diabetes world: two research groups found a method for "growing large volumes of well-developed human beta cells from stem cells." This breakthrough allows researchers to study different aspects of beta cells that they were previously unable to determine such as how they are produced and how to prevent their destruction. This also enables researchers to reimplant the beta cells into patients with diabetes. There are currently three main companies working towards a cure, each company has many ongoing trials so I will just talk about a few of them.

Lab-grown, insulin-producing beta cells

The first company is Vertex, a global biotechnology company that purchased Semma Therapeutics in 2019. With the companies combined research, there is more hope to find a cure. Vertex is currently testing two methods. The first is implanting insulin-producing islet cells (groups of cells found in the pancreas which include beta cells) into the liver. This method would involve immunosuppressant therapy similar to what patients undergo before any other organ transplant. Preliminary testing of this method in diabetic animals has shown that it is sufficient to control blood sugar levels. Vertex's other method is testing is the use of a cell device (sometimes called a pouch) which would protect the lab-grown beta cells from the individual's immune response, allowing them to perform their normal function. The advantage of this method is that it would not require the immunosuppression needed for the simple transplant. Before being absorbed into Vertex in 2019, Semma announced "pre-clinical proof of concept" for both of these methods. This means that when tested on non-human primates and pigs there was not only positive c-peptide release (a sign of insulin secretion) but also an ability to control glucose levels. 

Difference between a normal and T1D pancreatic islet 

The second major company is ViaCyte, a regenerative medicine company. ViaCyte also found a way to produce lab-grown beta cells in 2014. Similar to Vertex's pouch method, ViaCyte is actively researching a potential cure using an encapsulation device they call PEC-Encap. For PEC-Encap there is a pouch-like membrane that contains the lab-grown beta cells. This membrane would protect the cells from the body's immune reaction but would allow the necessary proteins and nutrients to travel along the cells inside the pouch as well as through the blood vessels on the outside of the pouch. Clinical trials have already shown that the PEC-01 pancreatic progenitor cells (the beta cells ViaCyte was able to grow and use in trials) can develop into insulin-responsive, glucose-secreting beta cells when transplanted into the body 

Diagram of the PEC-Encap product currently being tested by ViaCyte

The last company is Sernova Corp, another regenerative medicine company focused on developing therapeutic treatment via regeneration for chronic illnesses. Sernova Corp is developing what they call Sernova's Cell Pouch System. The Cell Pouch is very similar to Vertex's pouch plan and also includes surrounding the therapeutic beta cells in a "scalable medical device." This device will be able to protect the insulin cells and secrete the necessary proteins and factors missing from the body, effectively replacing the non-functioning pancreas. Something particularly cool about this device is that it isn't limited to curing diabetes. Since any therapeutic cells can be transplanted into the pouch, it could work for any disease caused by missing proteins or hormones in the bloodstream. The Cell Pouch System combined with therapeutic beta cells has been proven to work in animals during trials, effectively maintaining the animal's glucose levels. Through trials, Sernova Corp has also determined that the pouches do in fact create a suitable space for the islet cells in humans.

Cell pouch implantation and therapeutic cells delivery process

Overall, though these advances may seem small, they are incredible. In my eight years of having diabetes, I never considered a cure to be a real possibility. Now, however, thanks to the numerous companies and ongoing trials to find a cure it seems like I might have a future where I don't have to think about giving myself insulin, and to me, that's pretty amazing. 

Can human genes be monopolized? -Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics

¹

Introduction 

Anyone who has taken any type of biology course would know that our DNA is part of what makes us, us. DNA can be found in nearly all human cells, and contains the instructions to make proteins for cellular growth, reproduction and ultimately cellular survival. Even the simplest of changes in a nucleotide, which is the building block for DNA can have devastating effects on human life. And again, anyone who has taken any level biology class would know that DNA is the result of molecular reactions that occurred billions of years ago. DNA is a product of nature that was created prior to and independent of human touch.    

Biologists and modern medicine have made groundbreaking discoveries in the field of human genetics. From the general structure of DNA, to specific diagnostic tests, innovation and exploration of the human genome has vastly improved our quality of life. But what if all of this came to a halt? What if someone could make a profit off a shared gene? What if someone could make a profit off your genes? The 2013 Supreme Court case Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics put this into question. 

Scientific Background

In order to understand the court's decision, you should understand the science behind the case. Myriad Genetics, a molecular diagnostic company, had patents on the BRCA1 and BRCA2 (breast cancer susceptibility) genes, and several other genetic mutations. BRCA1 and BRCA2 are genes that code for tumor suppressor proteins and are inherited from both parents, one copy of each gene from the biological mother and the other from the biological father. Breast and ovarian cancer occurs when there is a mutation in both alleles, so the person does not have any functional copies of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. The second mutated gene would not be inherited, and would only be found in cancerous cells. Mutations can occur when there was an uncorrected error during DNA replication, or because of environmental factors like UV radiation and exposure to chemicals. These mutations can result in an increased likelihood of breast, ovarian and other cancers. You can learn more about BRCA1 and BRCA2 here and here. Because Myriad had a patent on BRCA1 and BRCA2, they had complete control over who has access to testing and researching those genes and the mutations within those genes.   

    

Risk of breast cancer from mutations in the BRCA1/2 genes ²

Case Background

The plaintiffs, The Association for Molecular Pathology and several other genetic associations, doctors, and patients sued Myriad Genetics and the US Patent and Trademark Office regarding these patents. Myriad Genetics argued that the patented genes were isolated and mutated, making them distinguishably different from any other naturally occurring genes. Myriad Genetics cited SCOTUS case Diamond v. Chakrabarty, in which the court upheld that live man-made bacteria are unique in nature, therefore patentable. Applying the same logic to their case; because the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes (and other mutations) are distinguishable from nature they can be patented. 

The Association for Molecular Pathology argued that Myriad's patents violated section 101 of the Patent Act. The section reads as follows: "Whoever invents or discovers any new and useful process, machine, manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement thereof, may obtain  a patent therefor, subject to the conditions and requirements of this title". This seems pretty broad, but there are a few limitations. The court established in Diamond v. Chakrabarty and then later upheld in Mayo Collaborative Servs. v. Prometheus Labs, Inc. that laws of nature, natural phenomena and abstract ideas are not patentable. The plaintiffs also argued that patents on genetic information would inhibit scientific research and progress. 

Justice Clarence Thomas gave the court's unanimous opinion June 13th, 2013. The court ruled in favor of The Association for Molecular Pathology and held that naturally occurring genetic sequences, their mutations and other derivatives could not be patented. Because the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes were not lab made, and their mutations were not synthetic they could not be patented. If those genes and their mutations were created and altered by man, they could then be patent allegeable. Justice Scalia concurred in part, disagreeing with the notion that cDNA (DNA composed of only the exons because the introns were removed in the lab) is naturally occurring, therefore unpatentable.     

³

Analysis

You are probably wondering why any of what I wrote is remotely relevant to you. The short answer is that gene monopolies are bad. We all know the Gilded Age robber barons. They monopolized major and new industries, giving them the power to set and regulate the price and supply of goods. You could argue that their actions had a positive influence on American life. Because they controlled the markets and destroyed competition, they cut the price of their goods and pushed for expansion. You could even say that because they treated and payed their employees so poorly, they paved the way unionization and the protection of worker's rights. But the biggest difference between Rockefeller's Standard Oil and the potential for a genetic monopoly is human life. 

Love it or hate it, there are alternatives to high steel prices. There are not many alternatives for genetic testing. If companies can patent genetic information, they can control who has access to said information. The company would have exclusive rights to this information and could create an inverse relationship between availability and price. They can adjust the market in their favor by increasing the price of diagnostic tests and make it more difficult for other scientists to research, thus thwarting scientific progress. A lot of this sounds worse case scenario, but we've seen it happen in history.  People should not have to pay an arm and a leg to see their genetic makeup. Scientists should not have to go above and beyond to have access to information that could substantially improve our quality of life. Scientific progress occurs as we disseminate information. Life altering science and innovation that remains a secret, is for all intent, void of any purpose.

    

Image Credits

¹- Chris Madden and published by Biopoliticaltimes.com 

Mass Hysteria: A Sickness of the Mind

What is behind mass hysteria? Mass Hysteria has interested me for a long time. I didn't understand how such a large group of people could all be experiencing such panic with nobody having rational thoughts. The definition of mass hysteria is a phenomenon that transmits an illusion of threats. These threats can be real or imaginary and they move through a population. A famous example of mass hysteria is the dancing plague. These "plagues" were spontaneous events that occurred in Europe in the middle ages. Entire communities would begin uncontrollably dancing and wouldn't stop until they collapsed from exhaustion or even died. These were the first recorded events of mass hysteria. 

Dancing Plague in 1518

Group Think

There are numerous hypotheses on why mass hysteria occurs. One of the most prevalent theories is mass hysterias connected to groupthink. Groupthink occurs when group cohesion is valued over all else. It is a psychological drive for consensus which causes other differing thoughts to be suppressed. During an outbreak of mass hysteria, a group of individuals becomes fearful and it turns into an all-out panic. When independent thinking is suppressed everyone follows the group mentality. This leads to outbreaks of panic and fear. Furthermore, mass hysteria generally occurs after times of stress and large disaster. It can also occur within smaller groups that have strong beliefs, such as religious groups.     

Anxiety

When a group of individuals is fearful or anxious about something their minds crave an explanation. With these thoughts, anxiety is increased and because of the very real symptoms so is fear. This is why mass hysteria outbreaks occur more often among children and teenagers. It also occurs in girls more often than boys because they tend to be in more stressful situations. When people experience high anxiety or what is known as an anxiety attack they can hyperventilate. This is when someone exhales too much carbon dioxide which causes muscles to spasm. When a person hyperventilates their bicarbonate/carbonic acid equilibrium shifts this results in a drop of blood pH. This symptom can cause the person to feel as if something more serious is occurring rather than just panic and an anxiety attack. In order for these mass events to occur the climate has to be just right. With enough uncertainty, anxiety, and delusion these events occur. When people start to panic and there is no authority to reassure them of their safety. That is when the panic spreads. Everyone follows everyone else and nobody knows what's going on.

Symptoms

A majority of the symptoms experienced when in a dissociative trance are psychological. Due to the widespread fear and anxiety, neurological problems can occur. People can experience muscle spasms, stomach cramps, fainting, and exhaustion. Often the individual makes themselves sick due to their belief that something is horribly wrong. Their mind causes a physical response. The way to address those who experience these symptoms is to address the underlying cause of their stress or anxiety.

How Do Allergies Work?

Chances are, a good amount of the people reading this have had an allergic reaction to something on Earth. More than 50 million Americans suffer from allergies every year. But how do these allergies work and what makes them one of the most common chronic diseases? The simple answer is a confusion in the immune system but it is also much more complicated than that.

An IgE antibody

To start an allergic reaction, the person needs to come into contact with the allergen. It is possible to be allergic to just about anything, from medicine to foods and anything in between. Once the allergen is inhaled, ingested, or enters the body in any way the person's immune system sees this substance as dangerous and attacks it with immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies. IgE antibodies can only bind to one type of allergen. That means that there are a ton of variations and each one is made specifically for a certain allergen. That's why it is possible to be allergic to one type of pollen but not another. Every person's body only creates IgE antibodies for allergens that they are allergic to.

Allergens binding to antibodies to release histamines

The antibodies act as cell receptors so once they bind with the allergen they prompt the cell to release histamines across the body. Histamines are one of the human body's defense systems. They are organic molecules based on the structure of ammonia that bind to other receptors and other cells in order to trigger a response. Since the immune system sees the allergen as a dangerous substance, it is going to do all that it can to try to get it out of the body. Histamines are the direct cause of reactions like coughing, itching, and sneezing because they send the cells and tissues signals to perform that function after they bind to them. Coughing forces substances out of the mouth and sneezing forces substances out of the nose. The more histamines released, the worse the allergy symptoms get. Once there are no more allergens in the body, the antibodies do not get bound to and histamines stop being produced.

Signal transduction pathway of epinephrine

Anaphylaxis, or anaphylactic shock, is a severe allergic reaction. These can sometimes be life threatening and are usually caused by severe allergies to food or medication. In these cases the body overproduces a ton of histamines and other chemicals which create very drastic allergic reactions and symptoms. Some of the symptoms can compromise the respiratory system which leads to cardiovascular compromise and respiratory compromise which are fatal. The heart is also weakened and if it cannot pump enough blood throughout the body that can be fatal too. EpiPens are often used when anaphylactic shock occurs because they help reverse the negative effects. They release the hormone epinephrine which quickly relaxes muscles in the airways, stomach, intestines, and bladder. It also reverses the rapid decrease in blood pressure that anaphylactic shock usually creates. As shown above, the epinephrine that is injected binds to cells and goes through a signal transduction pathway that eventually leads to glucose being produced. One of the main effects that glucose can have is increased heart blood flow which can help combat anaphylaxis. 

Diagram showing how antihistamines block the histamine receptors

The way to treat less severe allergies is through antihistamine medication. Instead of stopping the symptoms, like EpiPens, they stop the cause of the symptoms. Antihistamines are designed to bind to the histamine receptors but when they bind they do not prompt any signals to be sent. Since the site is active and the antihistamine is physically bound to the receptor, the histamines that are released have nowhere to bind. This effectively stops the allergy symptoms from occurring.

Some popular antihistamine brands

I choose to write about allergies because I have seasonal allergies and wanted to know more about how they work. I found it interesting that one person's favorite food could be deadly to another person and it is all dictated and started by antibodies. Whether it's food, medication, or anything else, it is common to have some kind of allergy. Despite the effects that we get when we react to an allergen, allergens are not harmful by themselves. If the immune system didn't mislabel them as dangerous, they would be completely harmless. So instead of blaming the allergen the only thing we can blame is the immune system. And possibly your parents too as allergies can sometimes be hereditary. The good thing to take away from this is that it might not even matter in a while, since there is a decent chance that allergies can be outgrown. This claim is largely dependent on the allergy as studies have shown that allergies like tree nuts and shellfish are usually lifelong. Everybody's body is different though, and one way to loosely predict if an allergy can be outgrown is testing the level of IgE antibodies specific to that allergen that are present in the body. If the allergy is not outgrown it is not all bad, the best treatments are to avoid exposure to the allergen and seek medical help or take antihistamines you are exposed. That is well worth it to save yourself possible severe allergic reactions.

The Science of Sleep: Why do we get tired at night?

Have you ever gone to bed on Friday night, thinking that you had all the time in the world to sleep in, only to have woken up at your usual early hour? Maybe you have spent nights awake, unable to sleep despite feeling incredibly tired. Perhaps you don’t even need to set an alarm in the morning, and can naturally wake up at the same time every single day. These are all examples of the sleep-wake cycle in action, giving you signals about when to feel tired. 

The sleep-wake cycle exists as a part of one’s circadian rhythms, the 24-hour internal clock that keeps
track of all of your body’s functions. Circadian rhythms, from the Latin “circa diem”, or “around a day”,
help your body perform essential functions. These natural processes affect all living things, including animals, plants, and microbes. The internal clock, which dictates when it is time to go to sleep and when it is time to wake up, is made up of a group of over 20,000 neurons that join to create a structure in the brain known as the suprachiasmatic nucleus, or the SCN. The SCN can be found in the brain's hypothalamus region and receives signals from the optic nerve based on the amount of light in the environment. These signals trigger a release of hormones, which can cause sleepiness or alertness.

 

Diagram of the SCN and hypothalamus. Source: NIGMS

The process looks something like this: When the sun rises and light shines through your window and onto

your sleeping face, the optic nerve starts firing signals to the SCN. The SCN receives these signals and

then triggers the release of hormones that promote alertness and activity. Soon after, you will wake up and

begin to move about your day. Conversely, in the evening, when the sun sets and everything gets dark,

your optic nerves send signals telling your SCN to release melatonin, a hormone that promotes sleep.

Interestingly, melatonin release in teenagers has been known to be about an hour later than in adults.

This contributes to the reason that teenagers are known for being night owls and tend to perform poorer in

school when required to wake up earlier. Read more about this here. 

Graph of melatonin release throughout the night. Source: Philips

However, we now live in a world of electricity and screens, and no longer rely on the sun to dictate when

to rest. So what happens when light is no longer the primary signal for your sleep cycle? 

Recently, a group of 15 people took part in a study in which they lived in a cave with no sunlight and no way of tracking time for 40 days. They had to rely solely on their internal clocks to keep track of the passage of time, and decide collectively when it was time to sleep and wake up. While the participants spent 40 days in the cave, most people thought that it was around 30 days in total. While I would never be able to go that long in a cave without sunlight or a cool breeze, the participants considered it a relaxing time. Without light, our internal clocks do not quite follow a 24-hour cycle and can become much more varied. 

Members of the study exiting the cave after 40 days. Source: AP

On the opposite side of the spectrum, constant exposure to the light and screens that currently dictate our

sleep cycles can be very harmful and can lead to various other health problems. The SCN is very sensitive

to changes in our environments. When blue light from our phones and computers is picked up on by the

brain, it delays the release of melatonin and disrupts the sleep cycle. Short-term effects of a disrupted

sleep cycle include depression, anxiety, and problems with memory. This can lead to a greater risk of heart disease, kidney disease, and many other serious conditions in the long term. 

I know that I definitely need to be getting more sleep, especially after researching that last part. 

Our sleep cycle has evolved over thousands, even millions, of years. It is only recently that technology

has started to play a role in our lives. So the next time you start to feel tired, make sure that you put your

phone down, turn off the lights, and get some rest.